Description
Taxonomy
| Kingdom | Phylum | Class | Order | Family | Genus |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animalia | Chordata | Aves | Passeriformes | Sturnidae | Sturnus |
Synonyms
Invasion History
Chesapeake Bay Status
| First Record | Population | Range | Introduction | Residency | Source Region | Native Region | Vectors |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1906 | Established | Stable | Introduced | Boundary Resident | North America | Eurasia | Natural Dispersal(Natural Dispersal) |
History of Spread
Sturnus vulgaris (Common Starling) is a native breeder in Europe and central Asia, where it migrates to Africa, Arabia, and India in winter (Lever 1988). Eighty S. vulgaris were introduced to Central Park, New York City NY in 1890 by Eugene Schieffelin, as part of a plan to introduce to North America, all the birds mentioned in Shakespeare's plays (Lever 1988). By 1891, breeding was observed, and by the turn of the century, the range of the bird began to expand rapidly, reaching central ME, the Great Lakes, and northern GA by 1926 (Elton 1958). By 1945, S. vulgaris had established breeding populations on the Pacific coast (Kessel 1953). Currently, the breeding range of this bird extends throughout the continental US and into the southern-to-middle regions of Canada (Sauer et al. 2000). Sturnus vulgaris were also introduced to South Africa (~1897), Jamaica (~1904), Australia (1862) and New Zealand (1862) (Lever 1988).
In the Chesapeake Bay region, S. vulgaris was first seen in 1906 in Baltimore; and was first breeding in 1916 in Washington. By 1917-1922, the birds had become abundant in the Baltimore-Washington area (Stewart and Robbins 1958). Major roosting areas close to the Bay include: Susquehanna Flats (Havre de Grace), MD,on the upper Chesapeake Bay; Port Tobacco (Charles County) MD and Annandale VA on the Potomac River; Hopewell VA, on the James River (Checklist Committee 1979; Stewart and Robbins 1958).
Checklist Committee 1979; Elton 1958; Kessel 1953; Lever 1988; Stewart and Robbins 1958; Robbins and Blom 1996; Sauer et al. 2000
Invasion Comments
Residency- Sturnus vulgaris (Common Starling) is included here as a boundary resident because its cavity-nesting habits make it a common breeder in tidal swamps and shoreline areas (Stewart and Robbins 1958; McGilvrey and Uhler 1971), and a competitor with native hole-nesting birds, such as Aix sponsa (Wood Ducks), Picidae (Woodpeckers), Tachycineta bicolor (Tree Swallows), and Progne subis ( Purple Martins). Sturnus vulgaris also feed frequently in intertidal areas (Vader 1972; Time 1990).
Ecology
Environmental Tolerances
| For Survival | For Reproduction | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum | Maximum | Minimum | Maximum | |
| Temperature (ºC) | ||||
| Salinity (‰) | 0.0 | 0.0 | ||
| Oxygen | ||||
| pH | ||||
| Salinity Range | fresh-eu |
Age and Growth
| Male | Female | |
|---|---|---|
| Minimum Adult Size (mm) | ||
| Typical Adult Size (mm) | ||
| Maximum Adult Size (mm) | ||
| Maximum Longevity (yrs) | ||
| Typical Longevity (yrs |
Reproduction
| Start | Peak | End | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Reproductive Season | |||
| Typical Number of Young Per Reproductive Event |
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| Sexuality Mode(s) | |||
| Mode(s) of Asexual Reproduction |
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| Fertilization Type(s) | |||
| More than One Reproduction Event per Year |
|||
| Reproductive Startegy | |||
| Egg/Seed Form |
Impacts
Economic Impacts in Chesapeake Bay
Most of the information on Sturnus vulgaris (Common Starling) comes from outside the Chesapeake region, but should be applicable here.
Fisheries (Hunting)- Sturnus vulgaris compete for nest sites with Aix sponsa (Wood Ducks), a valued game bird (McGilvrey and Uhler 1971; Grabill 1977; Soulliere and Rusch 1996).
Aesthetic, Health, Habitat Change- Sturnus vulgaris are regarded as generally unattractive. Their droppings pose a health danger near roosts, due to histoplasmosis, which can be transmitted by air-borne particles (Glahn et al. 1991). Defecation from roosting sites can also be a significant source of nutrients to wetlands (Hayes and Caslick 1984).
Agriculture - Agricultural damage includes damage to crops, consuming feed, and potentially transmitting disease to livestock. Lethal control of S. vulgaris and native blackbirds, (by spraying trees with water and surfactants in below-freezing weather) on their roosts reduced populations (Glahn et al. 1991). Costs of control could be quantified. We don’t know whether significant starling control efforts have been made in the region.
References - Glahn et al. 1991; Grabill 1977; Hayes and Caslick 1984; Soulliere and Rusch 1996
Economic Impacts Outside of Chesapeake Bay
Sturnus vulgaris (Common Starling) is now widespread in North america, australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. It is generally regarded as a pest in its introduced range. Negative economic impacts include damage to crops, defecation in urban areas, transmisson of avian and human diseases, and causing airplane crashes. However, in New Zealand, and elsewhere, S. vulgaris has some benefits as a consumer of insect pests (Lever 1987).
Ecological Impacts on Chesapeake Native Species
Sturnus vulgaris (Common Starling) is abundant in the Chesapeake Bay watershed, and has probably major impacts on native terrestrial bird populations through competition for food and nest sites.
Competition- The chief impact of Sturnus vulgaris (Common Starling) in tidal wetlands of Chesapeake Bay appears to be competition for nesting sites in trees, with other hole-nesting birds, primarily Aix sponsa (Wood Ducks), Melanerpes carolinus (Red-Bellied Woodpeckers), and Tachycineta bicolor (Tree Swallows) (McGilvrey and Uhler 1971; Ingold 1994; Souliere and Rusch 1996). At Eastern Neck National Wildlife Refuge, nest boxes for A. sponsa were taken over by S. vulgaris, but redesigned boxes reduced this problem (McGilvrey and Uhler 1971).
Habitat Change- Huge roosting flocks of S. vulgaris can result in large nutrient additions to wetlands (Hayes and Caslick 1984). However, native birds such as Quiscalus quiscula (Common Grackles) and Agelaius phoeniceus (Red-winged Blackbirds) also contribute to these inputs.
References- Hayes and Caslick 1984; Ingold 1994; McGilvrey and Uhler 1971; Souliere and Rusch 1996
Ecological Impacts on Other Chesapeake Non-Native Species
Sturnus vulgaris (Common Starling) is abundant in the Chesapeake Bay watershed, and has probably some impacts on introduced bird populations through competition for food and nest sites.
References
Checklist Committee (1979) Virginia's Birdlife, an Annotated Checklist, , Richmond VA. Pp.Elton, Charles S. (1958) The ecology of invasions by animals and plants., , London. Pp.
Glahn, James F.; Stickley, Allen R., Jr.; Heisterberg, Jon F.; Mott, Don F. (1991) Impact of roost control on local urban and agricultural blackbird populations, Wildlife Society Bulletin 19: 511-522
Goodfellow, P. F. (1964) Passerines feeding on tidewrack, British Birds 57: 302
Grabill, Bill A. (1977) Reducing starling use of wood duck boxes, Wildlife Society Bulletin 5: 69-70
Hayes, Jack P.; Caslick, James W. (1984) Nutrient deposition in cattail stands by communally roosting blackbirds and starlings, American Midland Naturalist 112: 320-331
Ingold, Danny J. (1994) Influence of nest-site competition between European starlings and woodpeckers, Wilson Bulletin 106: 227-241
Kessel, Brina (1953) Distribution and migration of the European starling in North America, Condor 55: 49-67
Lever, Christopher (1987) Naturalized birds of the world., , London. Pp.
McGilvrey, Frank B.; Uhler, Francis M. (1971) A starling-deterrent wood duck nest box, journal of Wildlife Management 35: 793-397
Peterson, Roger T. (1980) A guide to the birds, , Boston. Pp.
Robbins, Chandler S.; Blom, Eirik A. T. (1996) Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Maryland and the District of Columbia, , Pittsburgh. Pp. 70-305
1996 The North American Breeding Bird Survey.
Soulliere, Gregory J.; Rusch, Thomas P. (1996) Nesting characteristics of Hooded Mergansers, Wood Ducks, European Starlings and Tree Swallows in Wisconsin, Journal of Field Ornithology 67: 100-104
Stewart, Robert E.; Robbins, Chandler S. (1958) Birds of Maryland and the District of Columbia., , Washington D.C.. Pp.
Time, Bjarne Emil (1980) Food taken by starling Sturnus vulgaris on an exposed marine sandshore, Fauna Norvegica Series C. Cinclus 2: 95-96
Vader, Wim (1972) Intertidal foraging and tidal feeding rhythm in a flock of starlings, Sterna 11: 69-70