Description
Synonomy - The name Micropterus salmoides was once used by some authors to refer to Micropterus dolomieu, Smallmouth Bass (e.g. Cope 1879). At this time (ca. 1850-1880), the Largemouth Bass was known by other species names such as M. pallidus (Cope 1879) and M. fasciatus (Cope 1869).
Other Taxonomic Grouping - Most Chesapeake Largemouths are M. salmoides salmoides. M. salmoides floridanus (Florida Largemouth) has been stocked in some VA reservoirs (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993).
Taxonomy
| Kingdom | Phylum | Class | Order | Family | Genus |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animalia | Chordata | Osteichthyes | Perciformes | Centrarchidae | Micropterus |
Synonyms
Invasion History
Chesapeake Bay Status
| First Record | Population | Range | Introduction | Residency | Source Region | Native Region | Vectors |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1869 | Established | Stable | Introduced | Regular Resident | North America | North America | Fisheries(Fisheries Intentional) |
History of Spread
Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass) is native to the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and Missisippi basins, from southern Quebec to MN and south to the Gulf Coast to NM, and in Atlantic drainages from NC south to FL (Page and Burr 1991). The original range of M. salmoides on the southern Atlantic Coastal Plain is uncertain because of probable early introductions. The northern boundary was possibly the James River, but more likely the Roanoke River drainage NC (Fuller et al. 1999; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). Micropterus salmoides was widely introduced by United States Fish Commission and state fish commissions. In 1893 the United States Fish Commission shipped mixed batches of M. dolomieu and M. salmoides to 29 states (Worth 1895). Shipments and stocking by United States Fish Commission continued into the 1930's. Stocking has been continued by many state agencies to the present. M. salmoides have been introduced to river drainages in 44 states, including HI. They have been introduced to Atlantic Coast rivers from Chesapeake Bay to the Kennebec River ME, [including the Hudson River, via the Erie Canal (Mills et al. 1997)], the San Francisco Bay Delta, and the Columbia River (Cohen and Carlton 1999; Fuller et al. 1999; Schmidt et al. 1986). They have also been introduced to Europe, Africa, Mauritius, the Phillipines, the West Indies, Hong Kong, and Brazil (Hardy 1978; Lever 1996). Micropterus salmoides has been reported from 63 countries worldwide (Food and Agriculture Organization 1998).
James River- Micropterus salmoides was considered to be possibly native, but probably introduced, to the James River (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). The first verified record (with voucher specimens) was Cope's (1869) in Tuckahoe Creek, near Richmond VA. He mentions an earlier museum specimen, caught downriver in the James. Virginia Fish Commission reports from 1876 suggest it was introduced to James from SC around 1800, but no evidence was cited. (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). It was not found in pre-European or 17th century archeaological sites in VA (Miller 1986).
York River- The first verified record of M. salmoides occurred in 1879 (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). In 1892-1900, it was collected in the tidal Mattaponi River (Evermann and Hildebrand 1910).
Rappahannock River- M. salmoides was probably introduced by unofficial stocking before 1876 (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993) or by United States Fish Commission (USFC) stocking in 1894 and 1897 (Bean 1896; Ravenel 1898), but the first verified record was in 1951 (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). It was widespread in the upper, middle and lower (tidal fresh) river by 1983 (Maurakis et al. 1987).
Potomac River- The earliest Potomac specimen of M. salmoides was collected in 1876 (Bean and Weed 1911), and probably originated from unofficial stocking. It was introduced in Shenandoah River in 1889 and was later planted in the lower Potomac by the USFC . 'By 1896 the fish had become remarkably abundant in the vicinity of Washington' (Smith and Bean 1898). It is found from Chain Bridge to the Wicomico River and St. Clements Bay, but is more abundant in the tributaries (Lippson et al. 1979). Abundance of M. salmoides has greatly increased since the invasion of Hydrilla verticillata (Hydrilla) in the 1980s (Killgore et al. 1989; Phelps 1994).
Patuxent River- Micropterus salmoides was stocked by the USFC in 1897-1905 (Ravenel 1898; Bowers 1907), and is now common in fresh-oligohaline waters of the estuary (Jug Bay Wetlands Sactuary 1996; Mansueti 1950).
Susquehanna River - Micropterus salmoides was probably introduced to the Susquehanna before 1893: 'widely introduced in Pennsylvania' (Bean 1893). Official USFC stocking began there in 1893 (Worth 1895). However, this fish was not listed for Susquehanna in PA by Fowler (1919; 1948). It is now common throughout the Susquehanna (Bielo 1963; McKeown 1984).
Upper Bay- Micropterus salmoides was planted at Principio Creek in 1893, (Worth 1895) and the Severn, Gunpowder, Sassafras, Patapsco Rivers by United States Fish Commisionin 1901-1910 (Ravenel 1902; Bowers 1912). The first verified captures from the Upper Bay were in Elk and Bohemia Rivers (Fowler 1917; Radcliffe and Welsh 1917). It occurs regularly inthe Rhode River (Hines et al.. unpublished data) and is widespread in upper Bay tributaries (Bush, Gunpowder, Northeast, Elk, Bohemia) (Fewlass 1980). In 1971-72, after heavy rains, including Hurricane 'Agnes', it was caught at Calvert Cliffs (Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia 1973), but was not collected there in subsequent (9) annual fish surveys (Horwitz 1987).
Eastern Shore Tributaries - 'Black Bass' were introduced to the Tred Avon River, Easton MD (1901) and the Pocomoke River, Snow Hill MD in 1901-1907 (Ravenel 1902; Bowers 19011). Micropterus salmoides are now widespread in fresh and tidal fresh waters on the Eastern Shore in MD and VA (Lee et al. 1981; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993).
Delaware River - Micropterus salmoides was probably introduced before 1893, since it was'widely introduced in Pennsylvania' (Bean 1893). Pond rearing began in Wilmington DE in 1891 (Raasch and Altemus 1991), and this fish was common at Millsboro DE (Fowler 1911). It is now widespread in fresh-mesohaline waters of the estuary (Horwitz 1986; Raasch and Altemus 1991).
History References - Abbott 1877; Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia 1973; Bean 1893; Bean 1896; Bean and Weed 1911; Bowers 1907; Bowers 1911; Cohen and Carlton 1999; Cope 1869; Evermann and Hildebrand 1910; Fewlass 1980; Food and Agriculture Organization 1998; Fowler 1911; Fowler 1917; Fowler 1919; Fowler 1948; Fuller et al. 1999; Hardy 1978; Hildebrand and Schroeder 1928; Horwitz 1987; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Killgore et al. 1989; Lee et al. 1981; Lippson et al. 1979; Maurakis et al. 1987; Miller 1986; Mills et al. 1997; Page and Burr 1991; Phelps 1994; Raasch and Altemus 1991; Radcliffe and Welsh 1917; Ravenel 1898; Ravenel 1902; Schmidt et al. 1986; Smith and Bean 1898; Uhler and Lugger 1876; Worth 1895
Invasion Comments
History of Spread - A report of M. salmoides from tidal Delaware River, 1873 (Abbott 1877) refers to M. dolomieu, as does the Maryland record of Uhler and Lugger (1876). This confusion accounts for Hildebrand and Schroeder's (1928) attribution of the invasion history of M. dolomieu in the Potomac to M. salmoides (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993).
Ecology
Environmental Tolerances
| For Survival | For Reproduction | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum | Maximum | Minimum | Maximum | |
| Temperature (ºC) | 0.6 | 36.4 | 12.2 | 25.5 |
| Salinity (‰) | 0.0 | 12.0 | 0.0 | 5.0 |
| Oxygen | hypoxic | |||
| pH | 5.1000000000 | 10.2000000000 | ||
| Salinity Range | fresh-meso |
Age and Growth
| Male | Female | |
|---|---|---|
| Minimum Adult Size (mm) | 285.0 | 275.0 |
| Typical Adult Size (mm) | 474.0 | 522.0 |
| Maximum Adult Size (mm) | 648.0 | 648.0 |
| Maximum Longevity (yrs) | 16.0 | 16.0 |
| Typical Longevity (yrs | 6.0 | 9.0 |
Reproduction
| Start | Peak | End | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Reproductive Season | |||
| Typical Number of Young Per Reproductive Event |
|||
| Sexuality Mode(s) | |||
| Mode(s) of Asexual Reproduction |
|||
| Fertilization Type(s) | |||
| More than One Reproduction Event per Year |
|||
| Reproductive Startegy | |||
| Egg/Seed Form |
Impacts
Economic Impacts in Chesapeake Bay
Fisheries- Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass) is a major sportfish in upper Chesapeake Bay and in all fresh-oligohaline tributaries of the Bay (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). This fish was harvested commercially from MD tidal fresh and brackish waters of Chesapeake Bay until 1945, when it was designated a sportfish. Sportfishing pressure was initially low but intensified in the 1960's and 70's, resulting in lower abundances in MD tidewaters (Fewlass 1980). Since the mid-1980s, with the revival of submerged aquatic vegetation, the abundance of M. salmoides, and the extent of fisheries, have greatly increased in the Potomac and upper Bay. Regular bass tournaments are now held in Chesapeake tidal waters, and expensive bass boats cruise tidal fresh waters (Fofonoff, personal observation). Negative fisheries impacts of M. salmoides have been not been well-studied. Predatory impacts on juveniles of Morone saxatilis (Striped Bass) and other sportfishes are likely, but hard to document, given many other parallel changes in the Bay environment.
References - Fewlass 1980; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993
Economic Impacts Outside of Chesapeake Bay
Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass) has been introduced worldwide, and is a highly prized sportfish wherever it is found (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). It has been introduced to drainages in 40 states and several Canadian provinces (Fuller et al. 1999). Around the world, it is established in Central and South America, many locations in Europe and Africa, Korea, the Phillipines, and Fiji (Lever 1996). Adverse impacts of introductions have not been well studied on the Atlantic seaboard, but predation on juveniles of other food and sport fish is possible. Introductions of M. salmoides outside North America have occasionally had severe effects on native fishes, fisheries, and other aquatic wildlife (Lever 1996).
References- Fuller et al. 1999; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Lever 1996
Ecological Impacts on Chesapeake Native Species
Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass) is common and widespread in tidal fresh to lower mesohaline waters in all of Chesapeake Bay's major tributaries.
Competition- Competition by Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass) with native Morone saxatilis (Striped Bass) and M. americana (White Perch) and predation on their juveniles, is possible but not well documented. Some food overlap was found between M. salmoides and introduced M. saxatilis were noted in an OK reservoir, but differences in habitat preference seemed to minimize competition (Matthews et al. 1992). Generally, Micropterus salmoides has a preference for quieter waters and vegetated areas, while M. saxatilis and M. americana prefer more open, exposed areas (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Killgore et al. 1989; Matthews et al. 1992; Page and Burr 1991).
In a laboratory experiment, the diet of both juvenile M. salmoides and M. saxatilis overlapped but was not altered when the two species were kept together (Matthews et al. 1992). Savitz (1981) found considerable food overlap between juvenile M. salmoides and Perca flavescens (Yellow Perch) in Cedar Lake IL, though the perch fed much more heavily on invertebrates. Since large piscivorous fishes pass through a juvenile phase where they feed on zooplankton and small benthic invertebrates, there is a possiblity of competition with smaller planktivorous fishes (Olson 1992; Osendorf et al. 1994; Post et al. 1997).
Predation- Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass) is one of the major piscivorous species in Chesapeake tributaries; but effects of its introduction on Bay fish populations have not been not studied. However, 'The contents of 22 stomachs taken in brackish water consisted exclusively of fish remains. This fish is highly predatory; and where it is common, the destruction of minnows and smaller fish is great' (Hildebrand and Schroeder 1928). Prey in upper Chesapeake Bay included Dorosoma cepedianum (Gizzard Shad), Cyprinidae and Cyprinodontidae ('minnows'), Menidia beryllina (Inland Silverside), Morone americana (White Perch), Perca flavescens (Yellow Perch), and Etheostoma spp. (darters) (Fewlass 1980).
Jenkins and Burkhead (1993) and others have suggested the introduction of large predatory fishes; primarily M. salmoides, M. dolomieu (Smallmouth Bass), and Ictalurus punctatus (Channel Catfish), may have been responsible for the extinction of two small benthic fishes, Percina caprodes (Logperch) in the Potomac; and Percopsis oniscomaycus (Troutperch), in the entire Chesapeake drainage. Predation on juveniles of many other species is likely. Juvenile M. salmoides fed on larvae of Alosa sapidissima (American shad) newly stocked in the nontidal Susquehanna; PA (Johnson et al. 1992). The impact of its feeding on anadromous fish larvae under more natural conditions has not been studied.
In the southwest United States (CA and AZ), predation by M. salmoides has had negative impacts on native populations of trout, minnows, pupfish (Cyprinodon), and topminnows (Gambusia spp., Poecilopsis spp., particularly on isolated populations of desert fishes such as Gila bicolor (Owens Tui Chub) (Dill and Cordone 1997).
Adult M. salmoides are important predators on larger benthic invertebrates such as crayfishes, and juveniles may feed on smaller invertebrates and zooplankton (Carlander 1977; Fewlass 1980; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). Normally, juvenile M. salmoides would be greatly outnumbered by other zooplanktivorous fishes, but in an MI lake, exceptional recruitment occurred in one year, resulting in M. salmoides dominating the zooplanktivore biomass, resulting in an early decline of large-bodied zooplankton, with consequences for the entire foodweb (Post et al. 1997).
Habitat Change - Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass), in its native and its introduced range, is the top predator in many North American lakes. Experimental manipulations of lake populations show that addition or removal of M. salmoides can have drastic effects throughout foodwebs, affecting planktivorous fish abundance, species composition and abundance of zooplankton and phytoplankton, ultimately affecting turbidity, growth of submersed vegetation, and other basic aspects of aquatic habitats (Hambright 1994; Post et al. 1997). However, the occurrence of these foodweb changes has not been well documented in open systems such as rivers or estuaries.
References - Dill and Cordone 1997; Fewlass 1980; Hambright 1994; Hildebrand and Schroeder 1928; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Johnson and Dropkin 1992; Killgore et al. 1989; Matthews et al. 1992; Olson 1992; Osenberg et al. 1994; Page and Burr 1991; Post et al. 1997; Savitz 1981
Ecological Impacts on Other Chesapeake Non-Native Species
Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass) is common and widespread in tidal fresh to lower mesohaline waters in all of Chesapeake Bay's major tributaries.
Competition - Competition is possible between Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass) and M. dolomieu (Smallmouth Bass) which was probably introduced first to the Potomac. Micropterus dolomieu rapidly colonized the Potomac down to Mount Vernon but soon became rare in tidal waters below Washington D.C. (Smith 1907). This range contraction coincides with the introduction of M. salmoides which rapidly became abundant in tidal waters (Smith and Bean 1898). Both species are largely piscivorous as adults, but M. salmoides appears to have a much greater preference still water, vegetation, and for estuarine conditions (Hildebrand and Schroeder 1928; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Page and Burr 1991). When kept in aquaria together, M. dolomieu select smaller prey than M. salmoides of similar size, and are more likely to capture prey near the substrate; while M. salmoides are more likely to feed in the water column (Winemiller and Taylor 1987). Competition is also possible with M. punctulatus (Spotted Bass), introduced in the James and York River systems. This species is roughly intemediate between M. dolomieu and M. salmoides in its habitat preferences (Carlander 1977; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993). A study in an OK reservoir suggested substantial overlap between M. salmoides and M. punctulatus in food and habitat use, but conclusions were limited by low abundance of of M. punctulatus (Matthews et al. 1992).
Some dietary overlap of adult M. salmoides and Morone saxatilis x M. chrysops (White-Striped Bass Hybrids) was noted in an OK reservoir (Gilliland and Clady 1981). However, competition between the two types of bass was judged to be minimal because of differenct habitat preferences. A similar conclusion was reached with a comparison of M. salmoides and Morone chrysops (White Bass), also in OK (Matthews et al. 1992). Morone chrysops is present in some reservoirs and fish farms in the Chesapeake drainage (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Harrell 1996 personal communication), and is a potential invader of tidal waters.
In MI lakes, juvenile Lepomis macrochirus (Bluegills) appear to slow the growth rates of M. salmoides (Largemouth Bass) by competition among juveniles. The growth reduction persists beyond the period of food overlap, because it delays the switch to fish predation in M. salmoides (Olson 1992). Competive interactions thus shift to predatory interactions as the bass grow (Osendorf et al. 1994).
In TX reservoirs, Pomoxis annularis (White Crappie) compete with later juveniles of M. salmoides for food and spawning sites, as well as preying on smaller juveniles. Lakes with dense populations of M. salmoides and intermediate-sized L. macrochirus tended to have stunted P. annularis populations (Cichra et al. 1981).
Predation - Micropterus salmoides is a major predator of introduced sunfish species; including Lepomis macrochirus (Bluegill) and Lepomis cyanellus (Green sunfish). (Carlander 1977). Baughman (1947) suggested that M. salmoides was responsible for the failure of the introduction of the Eurasian fish Tinca tinca (Tench) in North America. Juvenile Ictalurus punctatus (Channel Catfish) smaller than 18 cm total length are vulnerable to predation by M. salmoides (Krummrich and Heidinger 1973).
References - Baughman 1947; Carlander 1977; Cichra et al. 1981; Gilliland and Clady 1981; Harrell 1996 personal communication; Hildebrand and Schroeder 1928; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Matthews et al. 1992; Olson 1992; Osenberg et al. 1994; Page and Burr 1991; Smith 1907; Winemiller and Taylor 1987
References
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (1973) Preoperational estuarine ecological studies for the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant, , Philadelphia. Pp.Baughman, J. L. (1947) The tench in America, journal of Wildlife Management 11: 197-204
Bean, Barton A.; Weed, Alfred C. (1911) Recent additions to the fish fauna of the District of Columbia, Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 24: 171-174
Bean, Tarleton H. (1893) The fishes of Pennsylvania, In: (Eds.) . , Harrisburg PA. Pp.
Bean, Tarleton H. (1896) Report on the propagation and distribution of food-fishes, In: (Eds.) Report of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries for 1894. , Washington, D.C.. Pp.
Bowers, George (1911) Bureau of Fisheries- Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries for the fiscal year 1909 and special papers., , Washington DC. Pp.
Bowers, George M. (1907) Bureau of Fisheries- Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries for the fiscal year 1905 and special papers., , Washington, D.C.. Pp.
Carlander, Kenneth D. (1977) Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology. , In: (Eds.) Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Volume Two: Life History Data on Centrarchid Fishes of the U.S & Canada. , Ames. Pp. Ames
Cichra, Charles E.; Noble, Richard L.; Farquar, Bobby W. (1981) Relationships of white crappie populations to largemouth bass and bluegill, Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeast Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 35: 416-423
Cohen, Andrew N.; Carlton, James T. (1995) Nonindigenous aquatic species in a United States estuary: a case study of the biological invasions of the San Francisco Bay and Delta, , Washington DC, Silver Spring MD.. Pp.
Cope, Edward Drinker (1869) On the distribution of fishes in the Allegheny region of southwestern Virginia, Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 6: 207-249
Cope, Edward Drinker (1879) The Fishes of Pennsylvania, In: (Eds.) Report of the State Commisioners of Fisheries. , Harrisburg. Pp.
Dill, William A.; Cordone, Almo J. (1997) History and status of introduced fishes in California, 1871-1996, California Department of Fish and Game Fish Bulletin 178: 1-414
Eaton, John G.; Swenson, William A.; McCormick, J. Howard; Simonson, Timothy D.; Jensen, Kathleen M. (1992) A field and laboratory investigation of acid effects on largemouth bass, rock bass, black crappie, and yellow perch, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 121: 644-658
Ernst, Carl H.; Wilgenbusch, James C.,; Morgan, Donald L.; Boucher, Timothy P.; Sommerfield, Mark (1995) Fishes of Fort Belvoir, Virginia, Maryland Naturalist 39: 1-60
Evermann, B. W.; Hildebrand, S.F. (1910) On a collection of fishes from the lower Potomac, the entrance of Chesapeake Bay, and from streams flowing into these waters, Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 23: 157-164
Fewlass, Leon (1980) Life history and management of the largemouth bass in upper Chesapeake Bay, F-20-R , Annapolis MD. Pp.
Fowler, H. W. (1911) The fishes of Delaware, Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 63: 3-16
Fowler, Henry W. (1917) Notes on fishes from New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 69: 108-126
Fowler, Henry W. (1919) A list of the fishes of Pennsylvania, Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 32: 49-74
Fowler, Henry W. (1948) A list of the fishes of Pennsylvania., Bulletin of the Board of Fish Commisioners, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 7: 1-26
Fuller, Pam. L.; Nico, Leo; Williams, J. D. (1999) Nonindigenous fishes introduced into inland waters of the United States, , Bethesda MD. Pp.
Gilliland, Eugene R.; Clady, Michael D. (1981) Diet overlap of striped bass X white bass hybrids and largemouth bass in Sooner Lake, Oklahoma, Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeast Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 35: 317-330
Hambright, K. David (1994) Morphological constraints in the piscivore-planktivore interaction: Implications for the trophic cascade hypothesis, Limnology and Oceanography 39: 897-912
Hardy, Jerry D., Jr. (1978) Development of fishes of the Mid-Atlantic Bight. Vol. 3. Aphredoderidae through Rachycentridae., In: (Eds.) . , Washington DC. Pp.
Hildebrand, Samuel F.; Schroeder, William C. (1928) Fishes of Chesapeake Bay, Unites States Bureau of Bisheries Bulletin 53: 1-388
Horwitz, Richard J. (1987) Fish., In: Heck, Kenneth L., Jr.(Eds.) Ecological Studies in the Middle Reach of Chesapeake Bay.. , Berlin. Pp. 187-224
Jenkins, Robert E.; Burkhead, Noel M. (1993) Freshwater fishes of Virginia., , Bethesda, MD. Pp.
Johnson, James H.; Dropkin, David S. (1992) Predation on recently released larval American shad in the Susquehanna River Basin, North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12: 504-58
Killgore, K. Jack; Morgan, Raymond P. II; Rybicki, Nancy B. (1989) Distribution and abundance of fishes associated with submersed aquatic plants in the Potomac River, North American Journal of Fisheries Management 9: 101-111
Krummrich, Jerry T.; Heidinger, Roy C. (1973) Vulnerability of channel catfish to largemouth bass predation, The Progressive Fish-Culturist 35: 173-175
Lee, David S.; Gilbert, Carter R.; Hocutt, Charles H.; Jenkins, Robert E.; McAllister, Don E.; Stauffer, Jay R. (1980) Atlas of North American Freshwater Fishes, , Raleigh. Pp.
Lee, David S.; Norden, Arnold; Gilbert, Carter, R.; Franz, Richard (1976) A list of the freshwater fishes of Maryland and Delaware, Chesapeake Science 17: 205-211
Lee, David S.; Platania, S. P.; Gilbert, Carter R.; Franz, Richard; Norden, Arnold (1981) A revised list of the freshwater fishes of Maryland and Delaware, Proceedings of the Southeastern Fishes Council 3: 1-9
Lever, Christopher (1996) Naturalized fishes of the world., , London, England. Pp.
Lippson, Alice J.; Haire, Michael S.; Holland, A. Frederick; Jacobs, Fred; Jensen, Jorgen; Moran-Johnson, R. Lynn; Polgar, Tibor T.; Richkus, William (1979) Environmental Atlas of the Potomac Estuary, , Baltimore, MD. Pp.
Matthews, William J.; Gelwick, Frances P.; Hoover, Jan. J. (1992) Food and habitat use of juveniles of species of Micropterus and Morone in a southwestern reservoir., Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 121: 54-66
Maurakis, Eugene; Woolcott, William S.; Jenkins, Robert E. (1987) Physiographic analyses of the longitudinal distribution of fishes in the Rappahannock River, Virginia, ASB Bulletin 34: 1-14
Meador, M. R.; Kelso, W. E. (1990) Physiological responses of largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, exposed to salinity, Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 47: 2358-2363
Meador, Michael L.; Kelso, William E. (1989) Behavior and movement of largemouth bass in response to salinity, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 118: 409-415
Miller, Henry M. (1986) Transforming a 'splendid and delightsome land': colonists and ecological change in the Chesapeake 1607-1820, Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 76: 173-187
Mills, Edward L.; Scheuerell, Mark D.; Carlton, James T.; Strayer, David (1997) Biological invasions in the Hudson River: an inventory and historical analysis., New York State Museum Circular 57: 1-51
Musick, J. A. (1972b) Chapter VII: Herptiles of the Maryland and Virginia Coastal Plain., Special Scientific Report, Virginia Institute of Marine Science 65: 313-239
Nack, Steven B.; Bunnell, Donald; Green, David M.; Forney, John M. (1993) Spawning and nursery habits of largemouth bass in the tidal Hudson River, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 122: 208-216
Olson, Mark H. (1992) Mixed competition/predation interactions between largemouth bass and bluegill: patterns in young-of-year (YOY) growth, Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 73: 291
Osenburg, Craig W.; Olson, Mark H.; Mittelbach, Gary G. (1994) Stage structure in fishes: resource productivity and competition gradients., , Columbia. Pp. 151-170
Page, Lawrence M.; Burr, Brooks M. (1991) Freshwater Fishes., , Boston. Pp.
Phelps, Harriette L. (1994) The Asiatic clam (Corbicula fluminea) invasion and system-level ecological change in the Potomac River estuary near Washington, D.C., Estuaries 17: 614-621
Post, David M.; Carpenter, Stephen R.; Christensen, David L;, Cottingham, Kathryn L.; Kitchell, James F.; Schindler, Daniel E. (1997) Seasonal effects of variable recruitment of a dominant piscivore on pelagic food web structure, Limnology and Oceanography 42: 722-729
Raasch, Maynard S.; Altemus, Vaughn L., Sr. (1991) Delaware's freshwater and brackish water fishes: a popular account, , Wilmingotn, Delaware. Pp.
Radcliffe, Lewis; Welsh, W. W. (1917) Notes on a collection of fishes from the head of Chesapeake Bay, Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 30: 35-42
Ravenel, W. De C. (1898) Report of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries for 1897, , Washington, D. C.. Pp.
Ravenel, William De C. (1902) Report of the U. S. Commision on Fish and Fisheries for 1901, , Washington. Pp.
Ravenel, William De C. (1902) Report of the United States Commission on Fish and Fisheries for 1900, , Washington, D.C.. Pp.
Savitz, Jan (1981) Trophic diversity and food partioning among fishes associated with aquatic macrophyte patches, Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Sciences 74: 111-120
Schmidt, Robert E. (1986) Zoogeography of the northern Appalachians., In: Hocutt, Charles H. and Wiley, E. O.(Eds.) The Zoogeography of North American Freshwater Fishes. , New York. Pp. 137-159
Smith, Hugh M. (1907) Our fish immigrants, National Geographic 18: 385-400
Smith, Hugh M. (1907) The Fishes of North Carolina. Volume II, , Raleigh. Pp.
Smith, Hugh M.; Bean, Barton A. (1898) List of fishes known to inhabit the waters of the District of Columbia and vicinity., Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission 18: 179-187
Uhler, P. R.; Lugger, Otto (1876) Report of Commisioners of Fisheries of Maryland, , Annapolis. Pp.
Winemiller, Kirk O.; Taylor, Douglas H. (1987) Predatory behavior and competition among laboratory-housed largemouth and smallmouth bass, American Midland Naturalist 117: 148-166
Worth, S. G. (1895) A review of the history and results of the attempts to acclimatize fish and other water animals in the Pacific states, In: (Eds.) Report of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries for 1893. , Washington D.C.. Pp. 78-138