Electra angulata

Overview

Scientific Name: Electra angulata

Phylum: Bryozoa

Class: Gymnolaemata

Order: Cheilostomatida

Family: Electridae

Genus: Electra [Changed to Arbopercula angulata; data refers to Electra unless otherwise noted]

Species:

angulata [Describe here as A. iricolor]

Native Distribution

Origin Realm:

Temperate Northern Pacific, Central Indo-Pacific, Western Indo-Pacific, Temperate Australasia

Native Region:

Origin Location:

CONFLICT: Southern Australia and New Zealand; Northwest Pacific Temperate Northern Pacific [Japan] Sakkushima (Gerdes et al 2005; Mawatari 1953, cited in Key et al 1995; Morrisey and Miller 2009) STATUS STATED [Japan] Sagami Bay. (Hirose 2010 as E. a. and Silén 1941 as E. tenella (synonymized taxon)) STATUS NOT STATED [Japan] Tachigatani and Tanabe Bay, Wakayama Prefecture. (Okada & Mawatari 1938) STATUS NOT STATED [Japan] Iyo, Misaki Peninsula, Seto Inland Sea. (Ito & Nikaido 1974, cited in Inaba 1988) STATUS NOT STATED [Japan] Yunohama, Yamagata Prefecture, at the coast of the Japan Sea. (Suzuki 1979) STATUS NOT STATED [Electra tenella (Synonymized taxon)] [Japan] Sado Island, Niigata Prefecture; Shimoda, Shimizu, Shizuoka Prefecture. (Mawatari 1974) STATUS NOT STATED [Electra tenella (Synonymized taxon)] [Japan] Misaki, Sagami Bay. (Silén 1941) STATUS NOT STATED [Electra tenella (Synonymized taxon)] [Japan] Shirahama, Kushimoto, Hamajima and Sugashima: the former two are located at the west coast of Kii Peninsula and the latter two are located at the east coast. (Mawatari 1952) STATUS NOT STATED Central Indo-Pacific [Thailand] (Morrisey and Miller 2009) STATUS STATED [Malaysia] Singapore; Straits of Malacca (Key et al 1995) STATUS NOT STATED [Thailand] Siam, Sumbawa. (Levinsen 1909, cited in Okada & Mawatari 1938) STATUS NOT STATED [Singapore] Around Singapore. (key et al. 2000) STATUS NOT STATED [Peninsular Malaysia] Straitts of Malacca and the South China Sea off the coast of the state of Johor. (Keys et al. 1995) STATUS NOT STATED Western Indo-Pacific [India] Visakhapatnam. (Rao & Ganapati 1972) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate Australasia New Zealand (Lee II and Reusser 2012) STATED Uncertain realm East Asian Seas (Floerl et al 2009) STATUS STATED

Geographic Range:

[Western Pacific] Japan to Malaysia; New Zealand and Australia (Gerdes et al 2005; Key et al 1995; Floerl et al 2009; Morrisey and Miller 2009) Throughout the tropical Indo-Pacific and possible even the Caribbean (Landman et al 1987; Mawatari 1953; Rao and Ganapati 1974; Zann et al 1975, cited in Key et al 1995 and Key et al 1996) [Singapore]( Key et al. 2000) Near Sentosa Island: 1°15N, 103°50'E. Off Kusu Island: 1°14N, 103°52'E. Tuas: 1°19'N, 103°40'E. 0°-41°N both at Pacific side and the Japan Sea side. (Inaba 1988)

General Diversity:

NF

Non-native Distribution

Invasion History:

Yes, see inv_propens

Non-native Region:

Northwest Pacific, Southern Australia and New Zealand

Invasion Propens:

CONFLICT: Southern Australia and New Zealand; Northwest Pacific Temperate Australasia New Zealand (Floerl et al 2009; Inglis et al 2008; Morrisey and Miller 2009) *Non-indigenous Port of Nelson, New Zealand (Inglis et al. 2006) *Non-indigenous Temperate Northern Pacific Northwest Pacific (Floerl et al 2009) *Alien Uncertain realm [Cryptogenic] Australia (Floerl et al 2009) *Cryptogenic

Status Date Non-native:

[New Zealand] Found in first baseline survey in January 2002 but not in second baseline survey in December 2004 (Inglis et al 2008) Port of Nelson: introduced date is unknown. (Inglis et al. 2006)

Vectors and Spread

Initial Vector:

Hull fouling (not specified)

Second Vector:

NF

Vector Details:

Probably all of New Zealand's non-indigenous bryozoans have arrived via fouling of ships' hulls or (more recently) sea chests (internal hull recesses housing ballast and cooling water intakes; Coutts & Dodgshun 2007) (Floerl et al 2009) Hull fouling probable means of introduction to Port of Nelson, New Zealand (Inglis et al 2008; Stuart et al 2005)

Spread Rate:

NF

Date First Observed in Japan:

Mawatari (1953) studied the species but did not find date of collection (Key et al 1995)

Date First Observed on West coast North America:

NF

Impacts

Impact in Japan:

NF

Global Impact:

NF

Tolerences

Native Temperature Regime:

Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical

Native Temperature Range:

[Japan] Collected in cool-temperate to sub-tropical sites; 15-17°C (Gerdes et al 2005) [Singapore] Horseshoe crab specimens which were encrusted were collected in waters where the temperature ranges from 27.0 to 30.0°C (Key et al 1996) [India] Visakhapatnam: max 29.5ºC in summer and min 23.8ºC in winter. (Clark et al. 2003) [Japan] Shimizu: max 26.0ºC in summer and min 15.0ºC in winter. (Clark et al. 2003)

Non-native Temperature Regime:

Cool temperate

Non-native Temperature Range:

Cool temperate (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Native Salinity Regime:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Native Salinity Range:

[Singapore] Horseshoe crab specimens which were encrusted were collected in waters where the salinities range from 25.0 to 31.0%o (Key et al 1996) [India] Visakhapatnam: max 35.0psu in dry period and min 16.5psu in wet period. (Clark et al. 2003) [Japan] Shimizu: max 33.0psu in dry period and min 21.0psu in wet period. (Clark et al. 2003)

Non-native Salinity Regime:

NF

Temperature Regime Survival:

See details

Temperature Range Survival:

RELATED: [Electra spp.] 3.446 - 24.203 ºC (OBIS 2016)

Temperature Regime Reproduction:

NF

Temperature Range Reproduction:

NF

Salinity Regime Survival:

See details

Salinity Range Survival:

RELATED: [Electra spp.] 6.180 - 38.444 PPS (OBIS 2016)

Salintiy Regime Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Reproduction:

NF

Depth Regime:

Mid intertidal, Lower intertidal, Shallow subtidal, Deep subtidal

Depth Range:

[Japan] Collected at tidal area at Sakkushima (Gerdes et al 2005) Shallow water species. Supported by the depths at which it has been found as epizoans on various nektonic hosts (Key et al 1995) Found fouling sea snake at surface in 180m of water (Cuffey 1971, cited in Key et al 1995; Key et al 1996) East Sagami Bay: 60m. (Hirose 2010) Seto Inland Sea: Lower intertidal to 20-30m. (Inaba 1988) Visakhapatnam and its vicinity: mid-intertidal zone. (Rao & Ganapati 1972) [Electra tenella (Synonumized taxon)] Misaki in Sagami BayAbove the low water mark. (Silén 1941)

Non-native Salinity Range:

Native Abundance:

Common, See details

Reproduction

Fertilization Mode:

See details

Reproduction Mode:

Hermaphrodite/monoecious

Spawning Type:

NA

Development Mode:

Planktotrophic planktonic larva (feeding)

Asexual Reproduction:

Budding/fragmentation (Splitting into unequal parts. Buds may form on the body of the “parent”)

Reproduction Details:

Does not exhibit any obvious external morphological evidence (e.g. ovicells) of sexual reproduction (Mawatari 1953, cited in Key et al 1995 and Key et al 1996) RELATED: [Electra] Species in the Genus: Electra were described as non-brooding species; in broadcasters, sperm fuses with the oocyte at or near ovulation (while still in the ovary) (Ostrovsky 2013) [Gymnolaemates] Internal fertilization, whether intracoelomic or intraovarian, is obligatory (Temkin 1994 and 1996, cited in Ostrovsky 2013) [Gymnolaemates] Differ from most organisms in that sperm-egg fusion does not stimulate egg activation. Egg activation may not occur until "spawned" outside of maternal zooid (Temkin 1991) [Bryozoans] Non-brooding bryozoans feed during the larval stage, while the larvae of brooding bryozoans do not, since these larvae tend to settle soon after release (Hill 2001) [Bryozoans] While sperm is spawned through pores in lophophore tentacles, eggs are usually harbored inside the body wall, and are internally fertilized by sperm, coming in on lophophore feeding currents (Brusca and Brusca 2003, cited in Rouse 2011; Kozloff 1990, cited in Rouse 2011) [Bryozoans] Colonial hermaphrodites, with testes (spermatogenic tissue) and ovaries developing either within the same zooid (zooidal hermaphroditism) or in different zooids within the same colony (zooidal gonochorism) (Ostrovsky 2013) [Bryozoans] Members of the phylum Bryozoa are hermaphroditic. Both fertilization and egg brooding may either be internal or external (Ruppert et al. 2004) [Bryozoans] The first zooid in a colony is called the ancestrula. It is from this individual that the rest of the colony will grow asexually from the budding (Hill 2001) [Bryozoa] All bryozoan colonies are hermaphroditic. Autozooids may be dioecious; or monoecious, and protandrous or protogynous. (Hayward & Ryland 1998) [Bryozoa] Reproduces asexually by budding. (Mawatari 1976) [Membraniporidea] Shed numerous small eggs directlyto the sea (Hayward & Ryland 1998) and fetilize in the sea. (Mawatari 1976) These develop into shelled, planktorophic larvae, termed cyphonautes, which feed and grow during several weeks or months spent in the plankton. (Hayward & Ryland 1998)

Adult Mobility:

Sessile

Adult Mobility Details:

Encrusting on flotsam, as well as some instances of mobile substrates (Key et al 1995; Key et al 1996) RELATED: [Bryozoa] The abundance and taxonomic diversity of benthic bryozoan faunas are directly related to substratum. (Hayward & Ryland 1998) [Bryozoa] Bryozoans are a phylum of sessile, colonial suspension feeders found throughout the world in both marine and freshwater environments. (Tilbrook 2012)

Maturity Size:

Over 4000 zooids and covering 300mm2 within 15 days of larval settlement. Some colonies covered over 1000mm2 after one month (Mawatari 1953, cited in Key et al 1995 and Key et al 1996) Size of colonies on sea snakes ranged from 0.52mm2 to 10.30mm2; 15 to 156 zooids (Key et al 1995)

Maturity Age:

Sexual maturity in 3 months (Mawatari 1953, cited in Key et al 1995 and Key et al 1996) Many of colonies reached sexual maturity in only 3 months after settlement. (Mawatari 1953)

Reproduction Lifespan:

E. a. occurs in great numbers during August-November, as well as during March-May at Visakhapatnam and its vicinity. (Roa & Ganapati 1972) Appearance of young colonies was observed at the middle of June. The attachment of larvae continued until the end of October, and most of the settled themselves upon the test panels in the middle part of July at Hamajima, Mie Prefecture, Japan. (Mawatari 1953)

Longevity:

NF

Broods per Year:

There seems one or two generations being able to occur within a year. (Mawatari 1953)

Reproduction Cues:

RELATED: [Bryozoans] Experiments often used light as a cue to collect embryos/larvae (Woollacott and Zimmer 1977) [Bryozoa] In coastal species light is an important stimulus to larval release, and many cheilostomates shed larvae during the first few hours of daylight. (Hayward & Ryland 1998) [Bryozoa] In various degrees of intensity according to the species temperature also stimulates sexual reproduction. (Winston 1977)

Reproduction Time:

E. a. occurs in great numbers during August-November, as well as during March-May at Visakhapatnam and its vicinity. (Roa & Ganapati 1972) Appearance of young colonies was observed at the middle of June. The attachment of larvae continued until the end of October, and most of the settled themselves upon the test panels in the middle part of July at Hamajima, Mie Prefecture, Japan. (Mawatari 1953)

Fecundity:

NF

Egg Size:

RELATED: [Gymnolaemata] About 200µm (Woollacott and Zimmer 1977)

Egg Duration:

NF

Early Life Growth Rate:

Over 4000 zooids and covering 300mm2 within 15 days of larval settlement. Some colonies covered over 1000mm2 after one month (Mawatari 1953, cited in Key et al 1995 and Key et al 1996) RELATED: [Gymnolaemata] Two phases of larvae metamorphosis: first stage about 20mins; second stage 1-6 days (Woollacott and Zimmer 1977)

Adult Growth Rate:

Over 4000 zooids and covering 300mm2 within 15 days of larval settlement. Some colonies covered over 1000mm2 after one month (Mawatari 1953, cited in Key et al 1995 and Key et al 1996)

Population Growth Rate:

Over 4000 zooids and covering 300mm2 within 15 days of larval settlement. Some colonies covered over 1000mm2 after one month (Mawatari 1953, cited in Key et al 1995 and Key et al 1996) Colony covers 300mm2 within 15 days of larval setlement. At the end of month, some colonies covered over 1,000mm2 in summer. (Mawatari 1953)

Population Variablity:

NF

Habitat

Ecosystem:

Rocky intertidal, Oyster reef, Macroalgal beds, Flotsam, Floating plants or macroalgae, Fouling, Other

Habitat Type:

Epibenthic, Epiphytic, Epizoic, Under rock

Substrate:

Gravel, Cobble, Rock, Biogenic, Artificial substrate

Exposure:

Semi-exposed, Protected

Habitat Expansion:

NF

Habitat Details:

Selected white glass panel, possibly because it forms whitish colony over growing barnacles (Soule and Soule 2013) On drift shells, typical of epipelagic substrata; found on Nautilus spp. but rarely (Landman et al 1987, cited in Frazier et al 1992; Frazier et al 1992) Found encrusting on hydrophid sea snakes (Key et al 1995; Harmer 1926 and Cuffey 1971, cited in Key et al 1995; Kropach and Soule 1973; Pfaller et al 2008) Common fouling organism found encrusting surface-drift objects such as seeds, wood and plastic trash. Also living shells of cephalopods and oysters (Landman et al 1987, Mawatari 1953 and Levinsen 1909, cited in Key et al 1995; Frazier et al 1992) Encrusting horseshoe crabs (Key et al 1996) [New Zealand] Captured on main wharf at Port of Nelson (Inglis et al 2008) Found encrusting a log and zoaria of Bugla neritina (Silén 1941 as E. tenella (synonymized taxon) and surface-drift object such as seeds, wood, and plastic trash (Key et al. 1995) Found on test panels of the coast of Japan. (Mawatari 1953) Found on living shells of oyster. (Mawatari 1953) Found on algae and shells at Seto Inland Sea. (Inaba 1988) Found on the sea snakes, Lapemis hardwickii and Enhydrina schistosa. (Key et al. 1995) Found on the under-surfaces of rocks and on shingles. (Rao & Ganapati 1972) Gravel, Cobble, Semi-exposed (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Trophic Level:

Suspension feeder

Trophic Details:

RELATED: [Bryozoans] Suspension feeder...filter phytoplankton less than 0.045mm in size from the water column. (Hill 2001) [Bryozoa] Many phytoplankton species are cleary unsuitable as food for bryozoans. (Hayward & Ryland 1998) [Cheilostomata] Main food is diatom, protozoans and etc. and unappropriate sized particles are ejected (Mawatari 1976)

Forage Mode:

Generalist

Forage Details:

RELATED: [Bryozoans] Suspension feeder...filter phytoplankton less than 0.045mm in size from the water column. (Hill 2001) [Bryozoa] Many phytoplankton species are cleary unsuitable as food for bryozoans. (Hayward & Ryland 1998) [Cheilostomata] Main food is diatom, protozoans and etc. and unappropriate sized particles are ejected (Mawatari 1976)

Natural Control:

RELATED: PREDATION [Predation] [Bryozoa] Browsers and grazers, including sea urchins, fish, crabs and some prosobranchs, are known to include bryozoans in their diet. (Hayward & Ryland 1998) [Predation] [Bryozoa] Bryozoans are also the prey of very many small, selective predators, some of which may be adapted to a very narrow spectrum of prey species. Among them opisthobranch predators of bryozoans are well known. (Hayward & Ryland 1998) [Predation] [Bryozoa] Other than opisthobranchs as a predator, amphipods, isopods, mites and pycnogonids have all been recorded preying on bryozoan colonies. (Hayward & Ryland 1998) EPIBIONTS [Epibionts] [Cheilostomata] It is frequently observed in Japan that several species of hydroids flourish on Cheilostomata cause damages to them. (Mawatari 1976)

Associated Species:

NF

References and Notes

References:

Clarke C, Hillard R, Junqueira AOR, Neto ACL, Polglaze J, Raaymakers S (2003) Ballast water risk assessment, Port of Sepetiba, Fedral Republic of Brazil. GloBallast Monograph Series 14: 1-63 + 7 Appendices. Floerl, O., Inglis, G. J., & Gordon, D. P. (2009). Patterns of taxonomic diversity and relatedness among native and non-indigenous bryozoans. Diversity and Distributions, 15, 438-449. Doi: 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2008.00553.x Frazier, J. G., Winston, J. E., & Ruckdeschel, C. A. (1992). Epizoan Communities on Marine Turtles. III. Bryozoa. Bulletin of Marine Science, 51(1), 1-8 Gerbes, G., Kadagies, N., Kaselowsky, J., Lauer, A., & Scholz, J. (2005). Bryozoans and microbial communities of cool-temperate to subtropical latitudes—paleoecological implications. Facies, 50, 363-389. Doi: 10.1007/s10347-004-0037-2 Hayward PF & Ryland JS (1998) Cheilostomatous Bryozoa part I. Aeteoidea - Cribrilinoidea. Synopses of the British Fauna (New Series). Barnes RSK & Crothers JH (eds.) No. 10 (Second Edition). The Linnean Society of London and The Estuarine and Coastal Sciences Association by Field Studies Council: 366pp. Hill, K. (2001) Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce. Retrieved from http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/IntroBryozoa.htm Hirose M (2010) Cheilostomatus Bryozoa (Gymnolaemata) from Sagami Bay, with notes on bryozoan diversity and faunal changes over papst 130 years. Doctoral thesis in Hokkaido University : 1-177pp. Inaba A (1988) Fauna and Flora of the Seto Inland Sea. Second edition II. Mukaishima Marine Biological Station of Hiroshima University: 1-475. (in Japanese) Inglis G, Gust N, Fitridge I, Floerl O, Woods C, Hayden B, Fenwick G (2006) Port Nelson baseline survey for non-indigenous marine species (Research Project ZBS2000/04). Biosecurity New Zealand Technical Paper No: 2005/02: 1-56 +Appendices. http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/files/pests/salt-freshwater/2005-02-port-of-nelson.pdf Inglis, G., Gust, N., Fitridge, I., Morrisey, D., Floerl, O., Woods, C., Kospartov, M., Hayden, B., & Fenwick, G. (2008). Port of Nelson- Second baseline survey for non-indigenous marine species (Research Project ZBS2000-04). Retrieved from MAF Biosecurity New Zealand website: http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/files/pests/salt-freshwater/2008-port-of-nelson.pdf Key, Jr. M. M., Jeffries, W. B., & Voris, H. K. (1995). Epizoic Bryozoans, Sea Snakes, and Other Nektonic Substrates. Bulletin of Marine Science, 56(2), 462-474. https://www.dickinson.edu/download/downloads/id/1675/nektonicsubstrates Key, Jr. M. M., Jeffries, W. B., Voris, H. K., & Yang, C. M. (1996). Epizoic Bryozoans, Horseshoe Crabs, and other Mobile Benthic Substrates. Bulletin of Marine Science, 58(2), 368-384 Key Jr. MM, Jeffries WB, Voris HK, Yang VC (2000) Bryozoan fouling pattern on the horseshoe crab Tachypleus gigas (Müller) from Singapore. Proceedings of the 11th International Bryozoology Association Conference: 265-271. https://www.dickinson.edu/download/downloads/id/1667/bryozoanfoulingpattern Kropach, C., & Soule, J. D. (1973). An Unusual Association between an Ectoproct and a Sea Snake. Herpetologica, 29(1), 17-19. Lee II, H., & Reusser, D.A. (2012). Atlas of Nonindigenous Marine and Estuarine Species in the North Pacific. Office of Research and Development, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, EPA/600/R/12/631. Mawatari S (1952) Bryozoa of Kii Peninsula. Publications of the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory 2: 261-238. Mawatari S (1953) On Electra angulata Levinsen, one of the fouling bryozoans in Japan. Miscellaneous reports of Research Institute for Natural Resources 32: 5-10. Mawatari S (1974) Studies on Japanese anascan Bryozoa 3. Division Malacostega (1). Bulletin of the National Science Museum, Tokyo 17: 17-52. Mawatari S (1976) Bryozoa (Ectoprocta). In: Animal systematics. Uchida T (ed.) Nakayama-shoten Co. Ltd., Tokyo: 35-229. (in Japanese) Menon, N. R., & Nair, N. B. (1972). The growth rates of four species of intertidal bryozoans in Cochin backwaters. Proc. Indian Natn. Sci. Acad., 38(5&6), 397-402 Morrisey, D., & Miller, S. (2009). Review of existing information on marine biosecurity in the top of the South Island. Retrieved from the MAF Biosecurity New Zealand website: http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/files/pests/salt-freshwater/marine-biosecurity-south-island-review.pdf OBIS. Ocean Biogeographic Information System. http://iobis.org/mapper Access date: 09-09-2016 *Note: genus level data Okada Y & Mawatari S (1938) On the collection of Bryozoa along the coast of Wakayama-ken, the middle part of Honshu, Japan. Annotationes zoologicae japonenses 17: 445-462. Ostrovsky, A. N. (2013). Evolution of Sexual Reproduction in Marine Invertebrates – Example of gymnolaemate bryozoans. Dordrectht: Springer Netherlands. Doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-7146-8 Pfaller, J. B., Frick, M. G., Reich, K. J., Williams, K L., & Bjorndal, K. A. (2008). Carapace epibionts of loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) nesting at Canaveral National Seashore, Florida. Journal of Natural History, 42(13-14), 1095-1102. Doi: 10.1080/002229370701877565. Rao KS & Ganapati PN (1972) On the common anascan genus Electra from Vishakhapatnam and its vicinity. Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy 38: 220-224. http://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/PINSA/Vol38B_1972_3and4_Art09.pdf Rouse, S. (2011). Aetea anguina. Bryozoa of the British Isles. Retrieved from http://britishbryozoans.myspecies.info/content/aetea-anguina-linnaeus-1758 Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S., and Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate Zoology: A functional evolutionary approach. Ann Arbor, MN: Thomson Brooks/Cole. Silén L (1941) Cheilostomata Anasca (Bryozoa) collected by Prof. Dr. Sixten Bcok's expedition to Japan and the Bonin Islands 1941. Arkiv för Zoology 33A: 1-129. Soule, J. D., & Soule, D. F. (2013). Fouling and Bioadhesion: Life Strategies of Bryozoans. In R. M. Woollacott & R. L. Zimmer (Eds.), Biology of Bryozoans (pp. 437 - 458). New York, NY: Academic Press. Stuart, M., Jones, E., Piola, R., & McClary, D. (2005). Golden Bay Non-Indigenous Species Port Survey: Baseline Surveys of New Ports and Marinas. Retrieved from MAF Biosecurity New Zealand website: http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/files/biosec/camp-events/campaigns/marine-pest-mgmt/golden-bay-port-survey.pdf Suzuki S (1979) Catalogue of marine invertebrate animals in Yamagata Prefecture. Tamakibi-kai: 1-370. (in Japanese) Temkin, M. H. (1991). Fertilization in the Gymnolaemate Bryozoa (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (DP23819). Tilbrook KJ (2012) Cheilostomata: first records of two invasive species in Australia and the northerly range extension for a third. Check List 8: 181-183. http://www.checklist.org.br/getpdf?NGD192-11 Winston JE (1977). Distribution and ecology of estuarine ectoprocts: A critical review. Chesapeake Science, 18: 34‐57. doi:10.2307/1350363. https://fau.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fau%3A6214/datastream/OBJ/view/Distribution_and_ecology_of_estuarine_ectoprocts__A_critical_review.pdf Woollacott, R. M., & Zimmer, R. L. (Eds.). (1977). Biology of Bryozoans. New York, NY: Academic Press

Literature:

Moderate level of information; data from comparable regions or older data (more than 10 years) from the area of interest

Notes:

NA