Obelia longissima

Overview

Scientific Name: Obelia longissima

Phylum: Cnidaria

Class: Hydrozoa

Order: Leptothecata

Family: Campanulariidae

Genus: Obelia

Species:

longissima According to Dr. Kubota (pers. comm.), this species has never been recorded in Japanese waters. And was not included in the list of Japanese hidrozaons by Kubota (1998). [Describe here as A. iricolor]

Native Distribution

Origin Realm:

Arctic, Temperate Northern Atlantic, Temperate Northern Pacific, Western Indo-Pacific, Temperate South America, Southern Ocean

Native Region:

Origin Location:

CONFLICT: NEP also listed as non-native Temperate Northern Atlantic "Oceanus Europæus” (Calder 2012) *Type locality Northern Ireland (Minchin & Nunn 2013) STATED Coasts of Belgum (Ralph 1956) *Type locality Black sea (Stepanjants 1998, cited in BIOTIC 2015) STATUS NOT STATED Estuary and gulf of St. Lawrence, specifically: Northern and southern Gaspé waters, upstream and downstream part of middle St. Lawrence Estuary, Magdalen Islands (from the eastern Bradelle valley to the west, as far as Cape North, including the Cape Breton Channel), lower St. Lawrence Estuary, Prince Edward Island (from the northern tip of Miscou Island, N.B. to Cape Breton Island south of Cheticamp, including Northumberland Strait and St. George Bay to the Canso Strait causeway), upper North Shore (between Sept-Iles and Pointe des Monts), middle North Shore (from Sept-Iles to Cape Whittle, including the Mingan Islands), lower North Shore, south slope of Anticosti Island, Western slope of Newfoundland, including the southern part of the Strait of Belle Isle but excluding the upper 50 m in the area southwest of Newfoundland (Brunel et al. 1998) STATUS NOT STATED Danish waters; Oslofjord, Norway; western Sweden; north Atlantic: polar waters to the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, and to South Carolina in North America (multiple authors, cited in Calder 2012) STATUS NOT STATED Maine to Virginia, USA (multiple authors, cited in Karlson & Osman 2012) STATUS NOT STATED Wadden Sea of Schleswig-Holstein (Buhs & Reise 1997) STATUS NOT STATED Both sides of the North Atlantic (multiple authors, cited in Calder et al. 2014) STATUS NOT STATED Recorded north from the British Isles to the New Siberian Islands; found in the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea (Cornelius 1995b, cited in BIOTIC 2015; Stepanjants 1998, cited in BIOTIC 2015) STATUS NOT STATED Arctic to Boreal waters in all oceans; Mediterranean (Dautova & Pautrova 2010) STATUS NOT STATED All around Iceland (Schuchert 2001) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate Northern Pacific Strait of Georgia, British Columbia (Bernard 1978) STATUS NOT STATED Alaska to San Pedro, California (Rudy et al. 1979) STATUS NOT STATED Friday Harbor, Washington, USA (Hunter 1989) STATUS NOT STATED Kurile Islands, Russia (Antsulevich 1992) STATUS NOT STATED Nakhodka Bay, Sea of Japan (Kashin et al. 2003) STATUS NOT STATED Bering Sea to Korea and north coast of China (including Japan); Alaska to California (multiple authors, cited in Calder et al. 2014) STATUS NOT STATED Arctic to Boreal waters in all oceans; Alaska to southern California in the NEP (Dautova & Pautrova 2010) STATUS NOT STATED Western Indo-Pacific Red Sea (Dautova & Pautrova 2010) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate South America Magellan area (Cantero & Carrascosa 1999) STATUS NOT STATED Mar del Plata Harbour, Buenos Aires, Argentina (Genzano 2002) STATUS NOT STATED Arctic Kongsfjorden, Svalbard (Voronkov et al. 2010) STATUS NOT STATED Kandalaksha Bay, Russia (Slobodov & Marfenin 2005) STATUS NOT STATED Hudson Bay (Fraser 1931) STATUS NOT STATED Ungava Bay, Canada (Wacasey & Atkinson 1987) STATUS NOT STATED Isbjørnhamna and Gåshamma in Hornsund, west Spitsbergen (Ronowicz et al. 2008) STATUS NOT STATED White Sea (Plyuscheva et al. 2010) STATUS NOT STATED Beaufort Sea - Amundsen gulf area (Atkinson & Wacasey 1989) STATUS NOT STATED Dalnezelenetskaya Bay (Barents Sea) (Dvoretsky & Dvoetsky 2008) STATUS NOT STATED Eremeevskii Rapids in the Kandalakshsky Gulf of the White Sea (Marfenin 1999) STATUS NOT STATED Arctic waters (multiple authors, cited in Calder et al. 2014) STATUS NOT STATED Recorded north from the British Isles to the New Siberian Islands; found in the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea (Cornelius 1995b, cited in BIOTIC 2015; Stepanjants 1998, cited in BIOTIC 2015) STATUS NOT STATED Bipolar; Arctic to Boreal waters in all oceans (Dautova & Pautrova 2010) STATUS NOT STATED Jørgen Brønlund Fjord, Greenland; Arctic seas to South Orkneys; all around Iceland (Schuchert 2001) STATUS NOT STATED Southern Ocean Antarctic region (Cantero & Carrascosa 1999) STATUS NOT STATED Bipolar (Dautova & Pautrova 2010) STATUS NOT STATED Uncertain realm Nearly cosmopolitan; many records in the Indo-Pacific (Cornelius 1995b, cited in BIOTIC 2015; Stepanjants 1998, cited in BIOTIC 2015) STATUS NOT STATED Recorded north from the British Isles to the South Orkney Isles in the Atlantic (Cornelius 1995b, cited in BIOTIC 2015; Stepanjants 1998, cited in BIOTIC 2015) STATUS NOT STATED Likely found in the Indo-Pacific, misidentified under other species' names (Corneilus 1995b, cited in BIOTIC 2015) STATUS NOT STATED Present in northern and southern hemispheres; not found in tropical areas (Stepanjants 1998, cited in BIOTIC 2015) STATUS NOT STATED

Geographic Range:

-179.400009155273 -65.1000061035156,173 82.5 (OBIS 2015) Jørgen Brønlund Fjord, Greenland (Schuchert 2001) to South Orkneys (82ºN, Schuchert 2001) Amundsen Gulf, Beaufort Sea (Atkinson & Wacasey 1989) to Korea (Park 1990, cited in Calder et al. 2014) and north coast of China (Gao 1956, cited in Calder et al. 2014; Wei 1959, cited in Calder et al. 2014) in the NWP and southern California (Dautova & Pautrova 2010) in the NEP

General Diversity:

NF

Non-native Distribution

Invasion History:

CONFLICT No records of invasion (Global Invasive Species Database 2015) Likely introduced to the northeast Pacific (Carlton 2007)

Non-native Region:

Northeast Pacific, *either Central Indo-Pacific or Southern Australia and New Zealand; not sufficient data

Invasion Propens:

CONFLICT: Northeast Pacific Temperate Northern Pacific Alaska to Southern California (Carlton 2007) *Probable introduction San Francisco Bay, California, USA (Cohen et al. 2005) *Exotic Possibly cryptogenic in Grays Harbor, Washington, USA (Calder et al. 2014) *Status not known Uncertain realm Australia (Hayes et al. 2005) *Cryptogenic Alaska (Ruiz et al. 2006) *Cryptogenic

Status Date Non-native:

Grays Harbor, Washington, USA (Calder et al. 2014)

Vectors and Spread

Initial Vector:

Hull fouling (not specified), Aquaculture and Fisheries, Other

Second Vector:

Natural dispersal

Vector Details:

Likely introduced to the northeast Pacific via ship fouling (Carlton 2007) May be able to use fragmentation for short distance dispersal (BIOTIC 2015) Introduction vector: Rafting on floating debris, attached to ship hulls, or as medusae in ballast water (BIOTIC 2015) Introduction vector: Found on tsunami debris (Calder et al. 2014) Introduction vectors: accidental transfer with deliberate locations of fish or shellfish; hull fouling (Hayes et al. 2015)

Spread Rate:

NF

Date First Observed in Japan:

NF

Date First Observed on West coast North America:

NF

Impacts

Impact in Japan:

NF

Global Impact:

Dominates/out competes native species; reduces resources (Hayes et al. 2005) RELATED: [O. dichotoma] May inhibit settlement of Balanus crenatus on experimental panels (Standing 1976)

Tolerences

Native Temperature Regime:

See details

Native Temperature Range:

Cold water species (Stepanjants 1998, cited in BIOTIC 2015) [St. Lawrence estuary] Surface layer is ice-cold in the winter; surface layer summer temperatures range from 6 to greater than 20 ºC (Brunel et al. 1998)

Non-native Temperature Regime:

NF

Non-native Temperature Range:

NF

Native Salinity Regime:

Oligohaline, Mesohaline, Polyhaline, Euhaline

Native Salinity Range:

[St. Lawrence estuary] Surface layer in summer ranges from 0.5 to 32 ppt (Brunel et al. 1998)

Non-native Salinity Regime:

NF

Temperature Regime Survival:

See details

Temperature Range Survival:

[Kandalaksha Bay, Russia] First medusas of season collected at 7 ºC (Slobodov & Marfenin 2005) [St. Lawrence Estuary] Temperature ranged from -1 to 12.5 ºC (Brault & Bourget 1985, cited in Christian et al. 2010) [San Francisco Bay] 18.1, 17.9 ºC in the intertidal; near surface on artificial substrates include: 16.9, 15.2, 18.1, 13.8, 18.7, 17.1, 18.6, 20.4 ºC, near bottom on artificial substrates include: 16.8, 15.0, 13.6, 18.8, 20.5 ºC (Cohen et al. 2005) Cold temperate waters (Rudy et al. 1979) Temperate to cold waters (Schuchert 2001) -1.883 - 13.032 ºC (OBIS 2015) Cold waters of both hemispheres (Voronkov et al. 2010)

Temperature Regime Reproduction:

NF

Temperature Range Reproduction:

[Kandalaksha Bay, Russia] First medusas of season collected at 7 ºC (Slobodov & Marfenin 2005)

Salinity Regime Survival:

Mesohaline, Polyhaline, Euhaline, Hypersaline

Salinity Range Survival:

18 - 40 psu (BIOTIC 2015) [St. Lawrence Estuary] Salinity ranged from 25.5 to 31.5 ppt (Brault & Bourget 1985, cited in Christian et al. 2010) [San Francisco Bay] 28.0, 26.0 ppt in the intertidal; near surface on artificial substrates include: 27.9, 29.6, 26.6, 30.7, 28.3, 22.5, 24.5, 28.0 ppt, near bottom on artificial substrates include: 28.0, 29.4, 31.0, 28.3, 28.0 ppt (Cohen et al. 2005) 17.095 - 35.388 pps (OBIS 2015) [Wadden Sea] Found in all tidal channels, where salinity ranged from 18 - 30 psu (Buhs & Reise 1997)

Salintiy Regime Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Reproduction:

NF

Depth Regime:

Lower Intertidal, Shallow subtidal, Deep subtidal, Bathyal, Abyssal

Depth Range:

Low tide to 128 m (Carlton 2007) Primarily subtidal, but may occur in the littoral zone or in rockpools if washed up there (Cornelius 1995b, cited in BIOTIC 2015) [Argentina] Found between 36 and 70 m depth (Zamponi et al. 1998, cited in BIOTIC 2015) Preferentially shallower than 200 m, but recorded between 300 and 510 m deep in Patagonian waters (Stepanjants 1998, cited in BIOTIC 2015) Infralittoral (0 - 20m), intertidal (mediolittoral; "Entre marées hautes de vive eau moyennes et marées basses de vive eau moyennes"), circalittoral in the Gulf and Estuary (~20 - 200 m) (Brunel et al. 1998) 0 - 510 m, but prefers 10 - 100 m (multiple authors, cited in Dautova & Pautrova 2010) Low tide (Fraser 1931) Shoreline to 0.7 - 0.9 m deep (Kashin et al. 2003) Most abundant in the mid intertidal and just below (Rudy et al. 1979) 0 - 30 m, and down to 100 m (Voronkov et al. 2010) Sampled from -2 - 2090 m (OBIS 2015) 22 m (Bernard 1978) Sampled from 5 and 10 m depth (Ronowicz et al. 2008)

Non-native Salinity Range:

Native Abundance:

Abundant, Common

Reproduction

Fertilization Mode:

external

Reproduction Mode:

Gonochoristic/ dioecious

Spawning Type:

NA

Development Mode:

Lecithotrophic planktonic larva (non-feeding)

Asexual Reproduction:

Budding/fragmentation (Splitting into unequal parts. Buds may form on the body of the “parent”)

Reproduction Details:

Sessile colonial, vegetative hydroid stage, free-living sexual medusoid stage, and a planula larval stage. Medusoid stage lasts 7 - 30 days; pelagic planula larvae lasts up to 21 days. Lecithotrophic planula larva. Gonochoristic/dioecious. External fertilzation; both eggs and sperm are released into water. Asexual reproduction by budding. Larval/juvenile stage may disperse over 10 km. Fragmentation may allow for short distance dispersal (BIOTIC 2015) Reproduce with medusae (Ronowicz et al. 2008) RELATED: [Obelia sp.] Medusae have separate sexes. Males release sperm; eggs are fertilized while still in the gonads. Planula lavae (Kozloff 1990). Note that Note that O. longissima is stated as a broadcast instead of spermcast spawner by BIOTIC (2015)

Adult Mobility:

Sessile

Adult Mobility Details:

Sessile; permanently attached (BIOTIC 2015) RELATED: [Hydroids] Sessile (Denny & Gaines 2007)

Maturity Size:

[Kandalaksha Bay, Russia] Average bell diameter of mature medusae was ~1 mm, with ~40 palps (Slobodov & Marfenin 2005) [White Sea] Average bell diameter of mature medusae ~4 mm (Naumov 1960, cited in Slobodov & Marfenin 2005; Mayer 1910, cited in Slobodov & Marfenin 2005) Hydroid colonies can be up to 60 cm (Rees & Hand 1975, cited in Rudy et al. 1979) Medusae are 2.5 - 6 mm at full size (Rudy et al. 1979)

Maturity Age:

[White Sea] Medusae matured as rapidly as 10 days after release (Letunov & Stepanyants 1986, cited in Cornelius 1990) ["North America"] One month from settlement as planula to release of medusae (MacGinitie & MacGinitie 1949, cited in Cornelius 1990) RELATED [Obelia sp.] Development from swimming larvae to hydroid colony releasing medusae takes one month (MacGinitie & MacGinitie 1949, cited in Rudy et al. 1979). Lab-reared medusae sexually mature six days after emergence (Russell 1953, cited in Rudy et al. 1979)

Reproduction Lifespan:

[Kandalaksha Bay, Russia] Medusae are present in plankton for about one month, from mid-June - mid-July (Slobodov & Marfenin 2005)

Longevity:

Less than one year (BIOTIC 2015). Potentially very long if protected from predators of physical damage (Gili & Hughes 1995, cited in BIOTIC 2015) Colonies survive at least several months (Cornelius 1990, cited in Calder et al. 2014), but a given genet may survive much longer (Calder et al. 2014)

Broods per Year:

Annual episodic reproduction (BIOTIC 2015)

Reproduction Cues:

Primarily under endogenous control, though environmental factors influence growth and differentiation of hydranths and gonangia (Hammett & Hammett 1945, cited in BIOTIC 2015; Hammett 1951 (multiple papers), cited in BIOTIC 2015) Temperature critical in controlling hydroid reproduction (Gili & Hughes, cited in BIOTIC 2015) Medusae often released after collection and transfer to a laboratory (Cornelius 1990) *Note: not clear whether it's triggered by the changed abiotic conditions or disturbance [White Sea] Medusae matured rapidly after release, during the summer when day lengths are maximized (Letunov & Stepanyants 1986, cited in Cornelius 1990) RELATED: [Obelia sp.] Production of medusae may be tied to lunar periodicity, "third week of the moon" (Elmhirst 1925, cited in Rudy et al. 1979)

Reproduction Time:

[Plymouth, UK] Medusae reported in plankton from spring to summer (Bruce et al. 1963, cited in BIOTIC 2015) [Southern England] Medusae reported from March to late April (Cornelius 1995b, cited in BIOTIC 2015) [Southwest Norway and west Sweden] Medusae reported from May to June (Cornelius 1995b, cited in BIOTIC 2015) [Isle of Man] Medusae reported in plankton from April to July (Bruce et al. 1963, cited in BIOTIC 2015) [Massachusetts, USA] Medusae reported in plankton in July (Hammett & Hammett 1945, cited in BIOTIC 2015) [Kandalaksha Bay, Russia] First medusas of season collected in June (Slobodov & Marfenin 2005) [Western Europe] Medusae released in spring and early summer (multiple authors, cited in Cornelius 1990) [Scandinavia] Medusae released May - June (Ostman 1982b, cited in Cornelius 1990)

Fecundity:

An average colony might bear at least 100 gonothecae, each of which is capable of releasing ~20 medusae. Each female medusa could release about 20 eggs. If all medusae survive to release gametes, an average colony could potentially produce about 20,000 planulae larvae (however, only one of these planulae was likely to survive to form a colony which itself might survive to reproduce) (Cornelius 1990b, cited in BIOTIC 2015) "Four gonads with a diameter 336 µm with mature oocytes of 3 - 5 units in each individual" (Slobodov & Marfenin 2005) *Not sure if 3 - 5 oocytes per gonad or medusa, so quoted directly

Egg Size:

RELATED: [Obelia genticulata] Up to 200 µm in diameter (Faulkner 1929, cited in BIOTIC 2015)

Egg Duration:

NF

Early Life Growth Rate:

NF

Adult Growth Rate:

Growth rate is dependant on food supply (Marfenin 1997, cited in BIOTIC 2015) and temperature (Berrill 1949, cited in BIOTIC 2015) Under optimal nutritive conditions stolons grew at less than 1 mm in 24 hrs at 10-12 °C, 10 mm in 24 hrs at 16-17 °C, and as much as 15-20 mm in 24 hrs at 20 °C (Berrill 1949, cited in BIOTIC 2015) [Barents Sea] Annual growth on artificial substrata may be up to 500 g per square meter (Panteleeva 1999, cited in Voronkov et al. 2010)

Population Growth Rate:

NF

Population Variablity:

[St. Lawrence estuary] Colony length increased from settlement in June, reached a maximum from November to March, then decreased until June (Brault & Bourget 1985, cited in BIOTIC 2015) RELATED: [Obelia sp.] Seasonal variation in population size: colonies declined in June in North Carolina and after July in Woods Hole (Hammett & Hammett 1945, cited in BIOTIC 2015) [O. dichotoma] [Virginia, USA] Absent in the winter, though present for the rest of the year, and present year-round in South Carolina (where winter temperature is lower) (Calder 1990)

Habitat

Ecosystem:

Sediment subtidal, Rocky intertidal, Rocky subtidal, Mussel reef, Kelp forest, Fouling, Water column, Flotsam, Other

Habitat Type:

Pelagic, Epibenthic, Epizoic, Epiphytic

Substrate:

Sand, Cobble, Rock, Biogenic, Artificial substrate

Exposure:

Exposed, semi-exposed, protected, very protected

Habitat Expansion:

NF

Habitat Details:

Hydroid and medusa; fouling (Carlton 2007) Epibenthic, epifaunal, epilithic, epiphytic, epizoic. Found on boulders, other species, bedrock, cobbles, pebbles, coarse clean sand, algae, biogenic reef, artificial substrate, and in rockpools. Open coast, strait/sound, sealoch, ria/voe, estuary, ecnlosed coast/embayment. Very sheltered to extremely exposed conditions, with water flow from very weak (negligible) to strong (3 - 6 kn) (BIOTIC 2015) Occur in low light conditions (Gili & Hughes 1995, cited in BIOTIC 2015) Found on bedrock (Christian et al. 2010) Artificial substrates; boulder field (Brault & Bourget 1985, cited in Christian et al. 2010) Intertidal benthos and artificial substrates (Cohen et al. 2005) Collected from an exposed, silty location (Cornelius 1990) Found on buoys (Fradette & Bourget 1980) [Buenos Aires] Epizoic on ascidians (Genzano 2002) In assemblages with Mytilus trossulus, Ulva fenestra, Laminaria japonica, Balanus crenatus, Costaria costata, Semibalanus cariosus, Halocynthia aurantium, Pseudopotamilla occelata (Kashin et al. 2003) In the mussel community (Plyuscheva et al. 2010) [Konsfjorden, Svalbard] Usually found on kelp (Voronkov et al. 2010) Lives on the northern stone crab Lithodes maia and the red king crab Paralithodes camtschaticus (Dvoretsky & Dvoretsky 2008) Inhabits quietly flowing waters in open areas that never drain (Marfenin 1999) Kelp forest, on algae and bryozoans (Ronowicz et al. 2008) Found on tsunami debris (Calder et al. 2014) Fouling community (Karlson & Osman 2012) RELATED: [Obelia sp.] Found on docks, pilings, boats, rocks and seaweeds (Kozloff 1990) [Obelia sp.] Hydroids found on docks, kelp, floats in bays, exposed pilings, where water is clean and fast-moving. Medusae are floating (Rudy et al. 1979)

Trophic Level:

Suspension feeder

Trophic Details:

Passive suspension feeder; eats small zooplankton, small crustaceans, oligochaetes, insect larvae, probably detritus (BIOTIC 2015) Consumes crustaceans and their larvae; the arrowworm Sagitta (England); young fish (Rudy et al. 1979) Suspension feeder (Hunter 1989) RELATED: [Hydroids] Suspension-feeding or carnivorous (Denny & Gaines 2007) [Obelia sp.] Suitable food organisms are imobilized by nematocysts after touching one or more tentacles, then the tentacles bring the food to the mouth (Kozloff 1990)

Forage Mode:

Generalist

Forage Details:

Passive suspension feeder; eats small zooplankton, small crustaceans, oligochaetes, insect larvae, probably detritus (BIOTIC 2015)

Natural Control:

PREDATION [Predation] Fed on by several nudibranch species (Carlton 2007) [Predation] The opisthobranch Eubranchus consumes hydroid buds (Kozloff 1974a, cited in Rudy et al. 1979) PARASITES [Parasites] [Buenos Aires] The adult pycnogonids of Tanystylum orbiculare, Anoplodactylus petiolatus, and Endeis spinosa, and larvae of E. spinosa, are associated with colonies of O.l. Some E. spinosa larvae destroy the hydrothecae as they grow (Montagu 1808, cited in Genzano 2002) RELATED: PREDATION [Hydroids] [Predation] Hydranths may be eaten by nudibranchs, pyconogonids, fish, and the polychaete Procerastea halleziana (Denny & Gaines 2007) PARASITES [Hydroids] [Parasites] Pycnogonid larvae may parasitize and develop in hydranths (Denny & Gaines 2007)

Associated Species:

SYMBIONT [Symbiont] Hosts ciliated protozoans, Acineta sp., Ephelota sp., and Paracineta sp. (S. Landers, cited in Carlton 2007) OTHER [Other] Used as nursery areas for juvenile nudibranchs (Christian et al. 2010) [Other] Species associated with Mytilus trossulus + O.l. assemblages include Corophium sp., Jassa falcata, Enteromorpha linza, Thizoclonium implexum, Circeis armoricana, Noreis sp. (Kashin et al. 2003) [Other] Hydroid associated with caprellid amphipods, garnmarid amphipods, asellote isopods, copepods, diatoms, Eubranchus sp., Dendronotus frondosus, Phidiana crassicornis (Bodega Bay), Halosoma veridintestinale. Medusa associated with Anaphia sp. larvae (England) Rudy et al. 1979) *Note: nature of association not given EPIBIONTS [Epibionts] Substrate for Caprella irregularis, C. laeviuscula, C. mendax, C. striata, Duetella california, Metacaprella kinnerlyi, Tritella pilimana (Caine 1977) PARASITES [Parasites] [Buenos Aires] The adult pycnogonids of Tanystylum orbiculare, Anoplodactylus petiolatus, and Endeis spinosa, and larvae of E. spinosa, are associated with colonies of O.l. Some E. spinosa larvae destroy the hydrothecae as they grow (Montagu 1808, cited in Genzano 2002) RELATED: SYMBIONTS [Hydroids] [Symbionts] Act as microhabitats for many other species, including other hydroids, gammarid amphiods, and mussel recruits (Denny & Gaines 2007) PARASITES [Hydroids] [Parasites] Pycnogonid larvae may parasitize and develop in hydranths (Denny & Gaines 2007)

References and Notes

References:

Antsulevich AE (1992) Observastion on the hydroid fauna of the Kurile Islands. Aspects of Hydrozoan Biology. Boullon J, Boero F, Cicogna F, Gili JM, Hughes RG (Eds.). Sci. Mar. 56(2-3): 213-216. www.icm.csic.es/scimar/pdf/56/sm56n2213.pdf Atkinson EG & Wacasey JW (1989) BENTHIC INVERTEBRATES COLLECTED FROM THE WESTERN CANADIAN ARCTIC, 1951 TO 1985. Canadian Data Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 745. www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/111997.pdf Bernard FR (1978) British Columbia Faunistic Survey: Subtidal and Deepwater Megafauna of the Strait of Georgia. Fisheries and Marine Service Manuscript Report No. 1488. www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/22187.pdf BIOTIC (2015) Biological Traits Information Catalogue of The Marine Life Information Network for Britain & Ireland. http://www.marlin.ac.uk/biotic/biotic.php. Access Date: 02-12-2015 Brunel P, Bossé L, Lamarche G (1998) Catalogue of the Marine Invertebrates of the Estuary and Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 126. www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/223686.pdf Buhs F & Reise K (1997) Epibenthic fauna dredged from tidal channels in the Wadden Sea of Schleswig-Holstein: spatial patterns and a long-term decline. Helgoländer Meeresuntersuchungen 51(3): 343-359. link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02908719 Caine EA (1977) Feeding Mechanisms and Possible Resource Partitioning of the Caprellidae (Crustacea: Amphipoda) from Puget Sound, USA. Marine Biology 42(4): 331-336. link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00402195 Calder DR (2012) On a collection of hydroids (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa, Hydroidolina) from the west coast of Sweden, with a checklist of species from the region. Zootaxa 3171: 1-77. www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2012/f/zt03171p077.pdf Calder DR, Choong HHC, Carlton JT, Chapman JW, Miller JA, Geller J (2014) Hydroids (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) from Japanese tsunami marine debris washing ashore in the northwestern United States. Aquatic Invasions 9(4): 425-440. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/267394881_Calder_D.R._Choong_H.H.C._Carlton_J.T._Chapman_J.W._Miller_J.A._and_Geller_J._2014._Hydroids_%28Cnidaria_Hydrozoa%29_from_Japanese_tsunami_marine_debris_washing_ashore_in_the_northwestern_United_States._Aquatic_Invasions_9_425-440 Cantero ALP & Carrascosa AMG (1999) Biogeographical distribution of the benthic thecate hydroids collected during the Spanish Antartida 8611 expedition and comparison between Antarctic and Magellan benthic hydroid faunas. Scientia Marina 63(S1): 209-218. scientiamarina.revistas.csic.es/index.php/scientiamarina/article/viewArticle/905 Carlton JT (2007) The Light and Smith manual: intertidal invertebrates from central California to Oregon. 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Literature:

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Notes:

Kubota (1998) A list of hydrozoans (8 orders) in Japan. Nanki-Seibutus 40: 13-21. (in Japanese)