Oerstedia dorsalis

Overview

Scientific Name: Oerstedia dorsalis

Phylum: Nemertea

Class: Enopla

Order: Monostilifera

Family: Oerstediidae

Genus: Oerstedia *Originally described as Planaria dorsalis (Gibson 1995; Sundberg et al 2009)

Species:

dorsalis [Describe here as A. iricolor]

Native Distribution

Origin Realm:

Temperate Northern Pacific, Temperate Northern Atlantic, Tropical Atlantic

Native Region:

Origin Location:

Temperate Northern Pacific [Japan] Akkeshi, Hokkaido; Otsuchi Bay (Gibson 1995; Iwata 1954; Phillips 2011; Shimomura et al 2001) STATUS NOT STATED [Japan] Akahama, Otsuchi Bay, northeast Japan. (Shimomura et al. 2001) STATUS NOT STATED [Canada] Strait of Georgia, BC (Gibson 1995; Gibson 2015; McCullough et al 2005; Coe 1951; Macdonald et al 2010) STATUS NOT STATED [Mexico] Ensenada (Gibson 1995; Iwata 1954; Carlton 2007) STATUS NOT STATED [US] Puget Sound, Washington; California (Gibson 1995; Gibson 2015; EPA 2006; Bernhardt 1979; Coe 1951; Correa 1961; Maslakova and von Döhren 2009, cited in Hiebert et al 2010; Larsen 1979; Maslakova and Dohren 2009; McCaul 1963, cited in McDermott 1988; McDermott and Snyder 1988; Teal 1962; Trott 2004; Wells et al 1964; Carlton 2007) STATUS NOT STATED Puget Sound; southward to Ensenada, Mexico, Gulf of Mexico (Gibson 1995, cited in Kajihara 2007) STATUS NOT STATED [As Tetrastemma dorsalis (synonymized taxon)] Monterey Bay, California. (Coe 1904) STATUS NOT STATED Temperate Northern Atlantic [Canada] Bay of Fundy; Indian Point; Halifax, Nova Scotia (Gibson 1995; Gibson 2015; McCullough et al 2005; Coe 1951; Macdonald et al 2010) STATUS NOT STATED [UK] Norfolk Peninsula; Devon; Wales (Ferguson and Ruffin Jones Jr. 1949; Kitching 1937; Sundberg 1984; Sundberg et al 2009) STATUS NOT STATED [Ireland] Isle of Man; Irish Sea; Irish Exclusive Economic Zone (Gibson 2015; Prathep et al 2003) STATUS NOT STATED [Sweden] Glomma river; West coast of Sweden (Gibson 1995; Envall and Sundberg 1993; McEvoy and Sundberg 1993; Sundberg 1984; Sundberg et al 2007; Sundberg et al 2009) STATUS NOT STATED [Norway] Glomma river; Espegrend (McEvoy and Sundberg 1993; Sundberg 1984; Sundberg et al 2009) STATUS NOT STATED [Denmark] Helsingor (Sundberg 1984) STATUS NOT STATED [Germany] Helgoland; North Sea (Reichert and Buchholz 2006; Schultze et al 1990) STATUS NOT STATED [France] Wimereux (Gibson 2015; Zintzen and Massin 2010) STATUS NOT STATED [The Netherlands] (Zintzen and Massin 2010) STATUS NOT STATED [Belgium] Belgian Exclusive Economic Zone; North Sea (Gibson 2015; Zintzen and Massin 2010; Zintzen et al 2008) STATUS NOT STATED [Spain] Spanish Exclusive Economic Zone; North-western Spain; Pontevedra; Ceuta; Bizkaia; Lugo; Cadiz; Girona; Galicia; Iberian Atlantic and Mediterranean; Macronesia (Gibson 1995; Gibson 2015; Herrera-Bachiller et al 2015; Sundberg et al 2009) STATUS NOT STATED [Portugal] Madeira; Azores; Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone; Iberian Atlantic and Mediterranean; Macronesia (Gibson 1995; Gibson 2015; Coe 1951; Herrera-Bachiller et al 2015; Sundberg et al 2009) STATUS NOT STATED [Iceland] Reykjavik (Sundberg 1984) STATUS NOT STATED [United States] In the vicinity of the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole. (Maslakova & von Döhren 2009) STATUS NOT STATED Massachusetts; Texas; New England; Virginia; New Jersey; Georgia; North Carolina; Gulf of Maine (Gibson 1995; Gibson 2015; EPA 2006; Bernhardt 1979; Coe 1951; Correa 1961; Maslakova and von Döhren 2009, cited in Hiebert et al 2010; Larsen 1979; Maslakova and Dohren 2009; McCaul 1963, cited in McDermott 1988; McDermott and Snyder 1988; Teal 1962; Trott 2004; Wells et al 1964; Carlton 2007) STATUS NOT STATED Northern coasts of Europe, including western Baltic Sea, North Sea, Black Sea, northwestern Spain (Gibson 1995, cited in Kajihara 2007) to Madeira; Mediterranean; Nova Scotia to southern New England and southward (Gibson 1995, cited in Kajihara 2007) STATUS NOT STATED East coasts of North America. (Coe 1904 as Tetrastemma dorsalis (Synonymized taxon), 1940) STATUS NOT STATED Tropical Atlantic Virgin Islands. (Correa 1961) STATUS NOT STATED Miami (Gibson 1995; Gibson 2015; EPA 2006; Bernhardt 1979; Coe 1951; Correa 1961; Maslakova and von Döhren 2009, cited in Hiebert et al 2010; Larsen 1979; Maslakova and Dohren 2009; McCaul 1963, cited in McDermott 1988; McDermott and Snyder 1988; Teal 1962; Trott 2004; Wells et al 1964; Carlton 2007) STATUS NOT STATED Uncertain realm Gulf of Mexico (Gibson 1995; Iwata 1954; Carlton 2007) STATUS NOT STATED [United States] Florida (Correa 1961) STATUS NOT STATED Florida; Gulf of Mexico (Gibson 1995; Gibson 2015; EPA 2006; Bernhardt 1979; Coe 1951; Correa 1961; Maslakova and von Döhren 2009, cited in Hiebert et al 2010; Larsen 1979; Maslakova and Dohren 2009; McCaul 1963, cited in McDermott 1988; McDermott and Snyder 1988; Teal 1962; Trott 2004; Wells et al 1964; Carlton 2007) STATUS NOT STATED RELATED: Temperate Northern Pacific [Oerstedia dorsalis sensu Iwata, 1954] [Japan] Kiril; Hokkaido (Akhmatova et al 2012) STATUS NOT STATED *see notes

Geographic Range:

Circumpolar, inhabiting both Atlantic and Pacific coasts of N. America, as well as European shores (Coe 1951; Phillips 2011) Cosmopolitan species (McDermott and Snyder 1988; Phillips 2011) [Western Pacific] Japan (Gibson 1995; Iwata 1954; Phillips 2011; Shimomura et al 2001) [Eastern Pacific] Strait of Georgia, BC; Puget Sound, WA to Mexico (Gibson 1995; McCullough et al 2005; EPA 2006; Coe 1951; Correa 1951; Iwata 1954; Macdonald et al 2010; Phillips 2011; Carlton 2007) [Western Atlantic] Nova Scotia, Canada to Gulf of Mexico/Florida, US; Gulf coast to Texas (Gibson 2015; Moretzsohn et al 2016; Coe 1951; Correa 1961; Iwata 1954; Norenburg 2009; Phillip 2011; Carlton 2007) [Eastern Atlantic] Iceland; Sweden/Norway; Ireland to Spain; Portugal (Sundberg 1984; Gibson 2015; Moretzsohn et al 2016; Coe 1951; Iwata 1954; McEvoy and Sundberg 1993; Phillips 2011; Sundberg et al 2007; Carlton 2007) Western Baltic Sea; North Sea; Mediterranean; Black Sea (Gibson 1995)

General Diversity:

Oerstedia dorsalis var. albolineata Oerstedia dorsalis var. cincta Oerstedia dorsalis var. marmorata Oerstedia dorsalis var. viridis (Gibson 2015) Many colour varieties from different regions, genetic samples showed 9 genetically different groups but none of the groups revealed specific colouration (Akhmatova et al 2012; Phillips 2011; Sundberg 1984; Zaslavskaya and Chernyshev 2008) O. dorsalis sensu Iwata cannot be attributed to O. dorsalis from the coastal waters of Europe (Akhmatova et al 2012) Species either highly polymorphic or comprises a complex of taxa. Numerous varieties have been established: these are var. aequalis Iwata, var. albolineata Bürger; var. cincta Bürger; var. marmorata Bürger; var. rubra Bürger; forma striata Bergendal; and var. viridis Bürger (Gibson 1995; Sundberg et al 2009) In Swedish waters, ten forms of species are commonly encountered (Envall and Sundberg 1993; Gibson 1995) O. nigrimaculatais junior synonym of O. dorsalis based on random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis (Sundberg and Andersson 1995, cited in Kajihara et al 2008) Described 3 forms of O. dorsalis; habitat restrictions observed in two forms; suggested that these two forms may eventually diverge into species; one such form is Oerstedia striata (Sundberg 1984; Sundberg and Janson 1988; Sundberg 2015) Polymorphic, hides different cryptic species with different geographic resolutions but unable to separate species within this complex (Sundberg et al 2009)

Non-native Distribution

Invasion History:

No records of invasion (Global Invasive Species Database 2016)

Non-native Region:

Not applicable

Invasion Propens:

Not applicable

Status Date Non-native:

Not applicable

Vectors and Spread

Initial Vector:

NF

Second Vector:

NF

Vector Details:

NF

Spread Rate:

Not applicable

Date First Observed in Japan:

[Japan] Specimens newly recorded in Japan from collections in 1949, 1951 and 1952 (Iwata 1954)

Date First Observed on West coast North America:

[Canada] Strait of Georgia, BC: Studies within Strait of Georgia and surrounding fjords between 1988 and 2008 (Macdonald et al 2010) [California, US] Samples identified in 2006 (EPA 2006)

Impacts

Impact in Japan:

NF

Global Impact:

[US] Potential role as predators of peracarids in seagrass systems although additional information is needed to demonstrate population dynamics and rates of predation (McDermott 1988)

Tolerences

Native Temperature Regime:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical

Native Temperature Range:

Sampled at 10.835˚C (OBIS 2015) [Germany] Temperate waters (Schultze et al 1990) Akkeshi Bay: The heighest temperature is 21.1ºC in August 2004 and that of the lowest is -1.4ºC in February 2003. (Nakamura et al. 2005, cited in Grischenko et al. 2007) Otsuchi Bay: Around 20ºC during August and early September and about 5ºC to 7ºC during March and April. (Anpo et al. 2001) Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Non-native Temperature Regime:

Not applicable

Non-native Temperature Range:

Not applicable

Native Salinity Regime:

Polyhaline; Euhaline

Native Salinity Range:

Sampled at 33.460 PPS (OBIS 2015) [US] New Jersey: Salinity in the collecting areas ranged from 26-30%o (McDermott and Snyder 1988) [US] Georgia: Salinity in marshes averaging 20-30%o (Teal 1962) Akkeshi Bay: Salinity relatively constant, about 30 psu; it ranged from 26 psu in June 2003 to 31 psu in August 2004. (Nakamura et al. 2005, cited in Grischenko et al. 2007)

Non-native Salinity Regime:

Not applicable

Temperature Regime Survival:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical

Temperature Range Survival:

[Laboratory] Tests were run at 14 and 20°C (McDermott and Snyder 1988) Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Temperature Regime Reproduction:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical

Temperature Range Reproduction:

Cold water, Cool temperate, Mild temperate, Warm temperate, Subtropical (M. Otani, pers. comm.)

Salinity Regime Survival:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Survival:

Polyhaline, Euhaline (M. Otani, pers. Comm.)

Salintiy Regime Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline

Salinity Range Reproduction:

Polyhaline, Euhaline (M. Otani, pers. Comm.)

Depth Regime:

Mid intertidal, Lower intertidal, Shallow subtidal, Deep subtidal

Depth Range:

[Gulf of Mexico] Min and Max depth = 0m (Moretzsohn et al 2016) Occurs in the low intertidal zone and below (Coe 1951) Intertidal to sublittoral depths of 80m or more (Gibson 1995; Shimomura et al 2001; Gibson 1994, cited in Sundberg et al 2009) Bay and nearshore; benthic; rubble; 0> depth (Norenburg 2009) Depth range: intertidal to 72m (Phillips 2011) Low intertidal to subtidal (Carlton 2007) [Japan] Akkeshi, Hokkaido: Near low tide mark. (Iwata 1954) Akahama, Otsuchi Bay, northeast Japan: Intertidal zone. (Shimomura et al. 2001) [United States] Virginia Key, Miami and Key Largo, Florida: Intertidal zone and below. (Correa 1961) [United States] In the vicinity of the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole: Intertidal zone. (Maslakova & von Döhren 2009) [United States] Collected in about 20 fms in Monterey Bay, California. (Coe 1904) [England] From the high neap tidal levels on the shore to 80 m or more sublittorally. (Gibson 1994)

Non-native Salinity Range:

Native Abundance:

Rare, Common, Abundant

Reproduction

Fertilization Mode:

External

Reproduction Mode:

Gonochoristic/dioecious

Spawning Type:

None

Development Mode:

See details

Asexual Reproduction:

See details

Reproduction Details:

Sexes are separate; fertilization is external for most species. Asexual reproduction also occurs by fragmentation (Gibson 2015) Large eggs undergo direct method of development (Coe 1951) Shedding of larval epidermis (Hiebert et al 2010) Young worms escapes from egg membrane (Iwata 1972) Dioecious with external fertilization and direct development of the larvae within a benthic egg mass (Sundberg 1984) Does not reproduce asexually; Planktotrophic planktonic larva (feeding) (M. Otani, pers. comm.) RELATED: [O. dorsalis sensus Iwata] Development of species occur within cocoons (Akhmatova et al 2012) [Nemertea] Nemerteans have simple reproduction, with many testes or ovaries built into the body wall so eggs and sperm are released directly to the outside via pores, or by breakages in the body wall. Most marine species have separate sexes, but freshwater and terrestrial species are often hermaphroditic. Usually fertilization occurs externally, with spawning induced by mating behaviors and pheremones. Mating balls can be seen containing many individuals responding to chemical cues and often coordinated spawning. Eggs develop either individually or in clumps protected in egg masses, or in a few species carried by the females in the ovaries until they hatch. In most nemertean classes development is direct, yielding oval shaped, cilia covered juveniles, which may have a pelagic lifestyle temporarily before settling into a more benthic one. There is some diversity in developmental strategies among the order Heteronemertea (EOL 2016) [Enopla] Matured male and female gather under stones in crevices of rocks, and among sessile organisms for the fertilization. (Iwata 1976) [Enopla] Reproducition mode is dioecious and usually experiences external fertilization. (Iwata 1976) [Enopla] Enopla spawns one egg at a time and continues to spawn with time interval. (Iwata 1976) [Oerstedia] Sexes separate. (Gibson 1994)

Adult Mobility:

Actively mobile (Mobility is a normal part of at least part of the adult life cycle - at least in spurts. Not dependent upon distance traveled)

Adult Mobility Details:

Crawling among algae, hydroids, or in bottom debris (Gibson 2015; Macdonald et al 2010) RELATED: [Nemertinea] Nemerteans may be found burrowed in mud, sand, or other sediments, in crevices of rocks, among rocks or sessile organisms, under stones, or associated with algae or other plant masses. (Iwata 1976) [Nemertinea] Most adult nemerteans move quite freely over hard surfaces, burrow into muddy, sandy or gravelly semiments, squeeze themselves into rock crevices or beneath partially embedded rocks or boudlers. (Gibson 1994)

Maturity Size:

Mature individuals seldom exceed 10-20mm in length and 1-2mm in diameter (Coe 1951; Gibson 2015; Correa 1961) 2-3cm in length, 1-1.5mm wide (Iwata 1954)

Maturity Age:

RELATED: Judging from the longevity of nemerteans (Coe 1905), maturity age is considered less than one year.

Reproduction Lifespan:

[Japan] Spawning season of O. d. is July to Augustin at Akkeshi in Hokkaido. (Iwata 1988) [United Kingdom] O. d. breed during the period September to November at intertidal or shallow sublittoral, but deeper-water forms have been found containing mature ova as early as June. (Gibson 1994)

Longevity:

RELATED: [Nemertinea] Many species are more or less regularly annual, living but a single year and perishing after the discharge of the sexual products. (Coe 1905)

Broods per Year:

NF

Reproduction Cues:

RELATED: [Nemerteans] Laboratory: Egg laid often shortly after a water change or a change in light conditions (Maslakova and Dohren 2009) [Nemerteans] Spawning induced by mating behaviours and pheremones; individuals responding to chemical cues (EOL 2016)

Reproduction Time:

[Japan] Spawning season of O. d. is July to Augustin at Akkeshi in Hokkaido. (Iwata 1988) [United Kingdom] O. d. breed during the period September to November at intertidal or shallow sublittoral, but deeper-water forms have been found containing mature ova as early as June. (Gibson 1994)

Fecundity:

RELATED: O. dorsalis sensu Iwata contained 20-30 grayish-pink eggs (Akhmatova et al 2012) *see notes [Hoplonemertea] In most cases, few, but very large eggs are produced, and some species but a single ovum matures in each gonad. (Coe 1905) [Nemerteans] Usually laid small egg masses (containing a few dozen eggs each) loosely connected by jelly (Maslakova and Dohren 2009)

Egg Size:

150μm (Maslakova and von Döhren 2009, cited in Hiebert et al 2010) RELATED: [Hoplonemertea] In most cases, few, but very large eggs are produced, and some species but a single ovum matures in each gonad. (Coe 1905)

Egg Duration:

[Oerstedia dorsalis var. albolineata Iwata (variation)] 2 days after fertilization, embryo begins to rotate slowly within the egg membrane; Four days later the young worm creeps out (Iwata 1985)

Early Life Growth Rate:

NF

Adult Growth Rate:

NF

Population Growth Rate:

NF

Population Variablity:

NF

Habitat

Ecosystem:

Sediment subtidal, SAV, Marsh, Rocky intertidal, Rocky subtidal, Coralline Algae, Kelp forest, Macroalgal beds, Fouling

Habitat Type:

Demersal, Epibenthic, Epiphytic, Epizoic, Under rock, Other

Substrate:

Mud, Sand, Mixed fine sediment, Gravel, Cobble, Rock, Biogenic, Artificial substrate

Exposure:

Exposed, Semi-exposed, Protected

Habitat Expansion:

NF

Habitat Details:

Among algae and other surface cover on rocks and pilings (Carlton 2007) Benthic, living under rocks or in burrows in soft substrata, or crawling among algae, hydroids, or in bottom debris (Gibson 2015; Iwata 1954) Bay and nearshore; benthic; rubble (Moretzsohn et al 2016) Among algae, bryozoa and other growths on rocks and piles (Coe 1951) Found on panels hung under pier; among sea-grass, eelgrass (Correa 1961; Maslakova and Dohren 2009; McDermott and Snyder 1988) On pilings at low water (Ferguson and Ruffin Jones Jr. 1949) On small algae in rock pools, under stones or among fucoid or laminarian holdfasts, on a wide range of substrata below low tide level (mud, sand, gravel, stones or shelly sediments), occasionally among ascidians or on the hulls of sunken vessels; single records exists of a specimen being found under a log in a poikilohaline lagoon (Gibson 1995) Bay and nearshore; benthic; rubble (Norenburg 2009) Rocks and shells, among mud and sand, algae (Sundberg 1984) Commonly found on coralline algae in the tidal zone (Sundberg et al 2009) Found in crevices on calico scallops (Wells et al 1964) Found on shipwreck sites (Zintzen and Massin 2010) [Ireland] Found only at moderately exposed sites, high shore levels (Prathep et al 2003) [Japan] O. d. is usually found among algae or hydroid Eudendrium annulatum. (Iwata 1954) [United States] Virginia Key, Miami: Among algae together with many invertebrates on the panels hung under pier. Among algae, Enteromorpha sp. and Acanthophora spicifera. Intertidal zone and below. (Correa 1961) [United States] Key Largo, Florida: Among Padina and sea-grass. Intertidal zone. (Correa 1961) [United States] Monterey Bay, California: On piles of wharves, on rocks, among algae, bryozoa, ascidians and other growths. (Coe 1904) [England] It is found on a wide variety of substrata below low water mark but generally occurs intertidally on small algae growing in rock pools or between the holdfast branches of Fucus and Laminaria species. (Gibson 1994)

Trophic Level:

Predator

Trophic Details:

Generally for group, they are carnivorous; in some cases only the body juices are ingested but the whole prey may be taken. Feed on protozoans, other microfauna and at times prey their own size (Gibson 2015) Carnivorous, predator; benthic macrofauna (organisms retained on a >500µm, including macroalgae; amphipods (Macdonald et al 2010; McDermott 1997; McDermott and Roe 1985) Preferred prey: Corophium acherusicum (Thiel and Kruse 2001) RELATED: [Nemerteans] Most are usually carnivorous, feeding on a great variety of worms, crustaceans, mollusks and other small, soft-bodied animals (Coe 1951) [Nemertinea] Nemeateans are entirly carnivorous and feed primarily on annelids, although they also eat other small living or dead invertebrates, such as mollusks and crustaceans. (Barnes 1968)

Forage Mode:

Selective

Forage Details:

Generally for group, they are carnivorous; in some cases only the body juices are ingested but the whole prey may be taken. Feed on protozoans, other microfauna and at times prey their own size (Gibson 2015; McDermott and Snyder 1988) Feeding process (from head penetration to removal of the head) takes about 7 min; suctorial feeding behaviour (McDermott and Snyder 1988) Has enough toxin to kill a number of corophiids in rapid succession; reduced amounts of toxin may be inoculated by successive proboscis strikes to cause immobilization of prey (McDermott and Snyder 1988) RELATED: [Nemerteans] To secure their prey they are furnished with highly specialized sense organs and most of them with long, extrusible proboscis (Coe 1951) [Nemertinea] Kinds of food of nemertenean vary among species, body size and age. (Iwata 1976)

Natural Control:

RELATED: PREDATION [Nemertinea] [Predation] Nemertinea is a prey for other carnivorous invetebrates such as annelids, crustaceans, and fishes. (Iwata 1976)

Associated Species:

NF

References and Notes

References:

Akhmatova, A. F., Chernyshev, A. V., & Zaslavskaya, N. I. (2012). The Species Composition of the Nemertean Genus Oerstedia (Nemertea: Hoplonemertea) in the Far Eastern Seas of Russia. Invertebrate Zoology, 38(6), 423-430 Anpo Y, Nagashima H, Otobe H (2001) On the condition of thermal fluctuation of Otsuchi Bay. Otsuchi Marine Science 26: 87-88. (in Japnese) http://ci.nii.ac.jp/els/110000036753.pdf?id=ART0000366166&type=pdf&lang=en&host=cinii&order_no=&ppv_type=0&lang_sw=&no=1463986949&cp= Barnes RD (1968) Invertebrate zoology. Second edition. WB Sounders Company, Philadelphia, London and Tokyo: 743pp. Bernhardt, P. (1979). A Key to the Nemertea from the Intertidal Zone of the Coast of California. Retrieved from http://www.scamit.org/ Buschbaum, C., Chapman, A. S., & Saier, B. (2006). How an introduced seaweed can affect epibiota diversity in different coastal systems. Marine Biology, 148(4), 743-754. Doi: 10.1007/s00227-005-0128-9 Calder, D. R., Choong, H. H. C., Carlton, J. T., Chapman, J. W., Miller, J. A., & Geller, J. (2014). Hydroids (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) from Japanese tsunami marine debris washing ashore in the northwestern United States. Aquatic Invasions, 9(4), 425-440. Doi: 10.3391/ai.2014.9.4.02. Carlton, J. T. (Ed.). (2007). The Light and Smith Manual: intertidal invertebrates from central California to Oregon. Los Angeles, CA: Univ of California Press. Coe WR (1904) Nemerteans of the Pacific coast of North America. Part II. Harriman Alaska Expedition 11: 113-221. Coe WR (1905) Nemerteans of the west and northeast coast of America. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at Harbard College 47: 1-319. Coe WR (1940) Revision of the nemertean fauna of the Pacific coasts of North, Central, and northern South America. Allan Hancock Pacific Expedition 2: 247-323. Coe, W. R. (1951). The Nemertean Faunas of the Gulf of Mexico and of Southern Florida. Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean, 1(3), 149-186 Correa DD (1961) Nemerteans from Florida and Virgin Islands. Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean 11: 1-44. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/umrsmas/bullmar/1961/00000011/00000001/art00001?crawler=true Envall, M., & Sundberg, P. (1993). Intraspecific variation in nemerteans (Nemertea); synonymization of the genera Paroerstedia and Oerstediella with Oerstedia. Journal of Zoology, 230, 293-318. EOL. (2016). Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved from http://www.eol.org EPA. (2006). Characteristic Group Details. Retrieved from EPA website: https://www3.epa.gov/storet/modern/doc/CharacteristicGroupDetails20.pdf Ferguson, F. F., & Ruffin Jones, E. Jr. (1949). A survey of the shore-line fauna of the Norfolk Peninsula. The American Midland Naturalist, 41(2), 436-446 Gibson R (1994) Nemerteans. Synopses of the British Fauna (New Series), Barnes Rsk & Crothers JH (eds.) 24. 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Literature:

Moderate level of information; data from comparable regions or older data (more than 10 years) from the area of interest

Notes:

Oerstedia dorsalis sensu Iwata, 1954 cannot be attributed to O. dorsalis from the coastal waters of Europe (and US); considered separate from O. dorsalis Abildgaard, 1806 (Akhmatova et al 2012)