Botrylloides niger

Invasion History

First Non-native Panama (Pacific) Tidal Record: 2008

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Panama Invasion History:

Invasion History in Panama:

Botrylloides niger is cryptogenic, and possibly native on the Caribbean Coast of Panama, and has been collected in Bocas del Toro (2003, Rocha et al. 2005) and in Galaet, near the mouth of the Canal (Carman et al. 2011). In 2003–2008, it was collected at the Flamenco Marina in Balboa, Panama, and has been found in several locations in Panama Bay (2002–2008, Carman et al. 2011); STRI-Naos Dock, Balboa/Panama/Panama Bay (2002–2008, Carman et al. 2011; Ruiz et al., unpublished data). These are its first records in the Eastern Pacific. 

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Invasion history elsewhere in the world:

Invasion history for elsewhere in the world has not been summarized for this species at this time.

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Description

Botrylloides niger is a colonial tunicate that forms extensive branching systems, often forming dense, crowded colonies, whose limits can be difficult to determine. The zooids are elongate and curved, and about 1.5 to 1.85 mm. They are placed at right angles to the surface. The mantle has many longitudinal muscle bands. The branchial apertures are rounded, while atrial aperture varies from rounded to a transverse slit, which may be produced into a short languet. Adults have 8 larger tentacles, with 8 or more small, or rudimentary tentacles in the intervals. The two lateral tentacles of the larger order are usually largest. There are 3 internal longitudinal vessels on each side, separated by 2 to 4 stigmata, and from the endostyle and dorsal lamina by 5–6 stigmata. The stomach is roughly funnel-shaped with 9–-10 glandular folds. The testis is smaller, with 6–10 lobes. Many colonies have male organs only, but some have a large egg or embryo on one both sides of the body. Egg diameter is ~0.26 mm (Van Name 1945). Colonies in Jamaican mangrove areas are flattened and dark-orange red in color (Goodbody and Webber 2003). In the South Pacific and South Atlantic, the zooids are orange, against a darker background. Specimens in Bahrain has yellow zooids against a black background (Monniot and Monniot 1997). 

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Taxonomy

Ecology

General:

Life History- A colonial (or compound) tunicate consists of many zooids, bearing most or all the organs of a solitary tunicate but modified to varying degrees for colonial life. Colonial tunicates of the genera Botrylloides have small zooids, usually not organized in systems, and fully embedded in a mass of tunic material. Each zooid has an oral siphon and an atrial canal, opening to a shared cloacal chamber. Water is pumped into the oral siphon, through finely meshed ciliated gills on the pharynx, where phytoplankton and detritus is filtered, and passed on mucus strings to the stomach and intestines. Excess waste is expelled in the outgoing atrial water (Van Name 1945; Barnes 1983). 
 
Colonial tunicates reproduce both asexually, by budding, and sexually, from fertilized eggs developing into larvae. Buds can form from the body wall of the zooid. Colonies vary in size and can range from small clusters of zooids to huge spreading masses. The zooids are hermaphroditic, with eggs and sperm being produced by a single individual. Eggs may be self-fertilized or fertilized by sperm from nearby animals, but many species have a partial block to self-fertilization. Eggs are internally fertilized, and embryos are incubated in a brood pouch. Once they are mature, fertilized eggs hatch into a tadpole larva with a muscular tail, notochord, eyespots, and a set of adhesive papillae. The lecithotrophic (non-feeding, yolk-dependent) larva swims briefly before settlement. Swimming periods are usually less than a day, and some larvae can settle immediately after release, but the larval period can be longer at lower temperatures. Once settled, the tail is absorbed, the gill basket expands, and the tunicate begins to feed by filtering (Van Name 1945; Barnes 1983). 
 
Botrylloides niger is found in tropical and subtropical environments at average seasonal temperatures of 16–30 degrees C (Sheets et al. 2016). In experiments, Botrylloides niger showed 80% mortality and signs of stress (reduced heart rate, distended cloaca) at 24 PSU, but no mortality at 28 PSU. This tunicate is known from a wide range of natural and artificial surfaces, including rocks, seagrasses, coral reefs, oyster beds, marinas, floats, and vessel hulls. It often grows on other organisms (Van Name 1945; Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and United States Navy Department 1952; Rodrigues and da Rocha 1993; Goodbody and Webber 2003; Skinner et al. 2003). Structures than from natural surfaces, (Simkanin et al. 2012). Dock floats are especially favored habitats, probably because their motion provides rapid water exchange, and a fresh supply of food-laden water (Glasby 2001). Other colonized man-made structures include pilings, piers, aquaculture structures, and boat hulls (Carman et al. 2010; Davidson et al. 2010; Simkanin et al. 2012). Natural habitats include rocky reefs, bivalve colonies, seaweeds, and eelgrass (White and Orr 2011; Simkanin et al. 2012; Wong and Vercaemer 2012; Carman et al. 2016). Predation may limit or slow the spread of?B. niger. 

Food:

Phytoplankton

Trophic Status:

Suspension Feeder

SusFed

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Habitats

General Habitat	Grass Bed	None
General Habitat	Oyster Reef	None
General Habitat	Mangroves	None
General Habitat	Coral reef	None
General Habitat	Marinas & Docks	None
General Habitat	Vessel Hull	None
General Habitat	Rocky	None
Salinity Range	Polyhaline	18-30 PSU
Salinity Range	Euhaline	30-40 PSU
Tidal Range	Subtidal	None
Vertical Habitat	Epibenthic	None

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Life History

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Tolerances and Life History Parameters

Minimum Temperature (ºC)	16.4	Field, Mediterranean Sea (Sheets et al. 2016)
Maximum Temperature (ºC)	30.3	Field, Mazatlan, Nayarit, Mexico (Sheets et al. 2016)
Minimum Salinity (‰)	28	Experimental, Boca de Toro, Panama (Dijkstra and Simkanin 2016)
Broad Temperature Range	None	Subtropical-Tropical
Broad Salinity Range	None	Polyhaline-Euhaline

General Impacts

Ecological Impacts- Botrylloides niger occurs on other organisms, including bivalves, but its thin colonies are not known to harm bivalves (Rodrigues et al. da Rocha 1993; da Rocha et al. 2009).  It is a common organism in hull fouling and harbor structures (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, United States Navy Dept. Bureau of Ships 1952; Rodrigues, and da Rocha 1993).  However, serious economic impacts have not been reported. 

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