Lucania parva

Invasion History

First Non-native North American Tidal Record: 1958
First Non-native West Coast Tidal Record: 1958
First Non-native East/Gulf Coast Tidal Record:

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General Invasion History:

Rainwater Killifish (Lucania parva) is native to Atlantic Coast from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, to the Florida Keys and Quintana Roo, Mexico. Its most commonly found in estuaries, not far above the tideline, however, it ranges far into non-tidal freshwaters is several rivers that have mineral-rich waters, including the St. Johns River, Florida, and the Rio Grande-Pecos system of Texas-New Mexico (Hubbs and Miller 1965; Robins et al. 1986; Page and Burr 1991; US National Museum of Natural History 2009). It has been introduced in the Western United States where it was discovered in four separate locations from 1958 to 1961 (Hubbs and Miller 1965).

North American Invasion History:

Invasion History on the West Coast:

In 1958 to 1963, populations of the Rainwater Killifish (L. parva) were discovered almost simultaneously in five separate areas of the Western United States. Populations were discovered in the San Francisco Estuary, Yaquina Bay, Oregon, Irvine Lake (Orange County, California), Blue Lake and Timpie Springs (both in Utah). Hubbs and Miller (1965) noted that Irvine Lake and the Utah sites all received Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) raised in a hatchery in Dexter, New Mexico, on the Pecos River, a Rio Grande tributary which has native Rainwater Killifish populations, and considered this the vector for the introductions. However, they did not find documentation for gamefish transfers from the Dexter Hatchery to the San Francisco Bay or Yaquina watersheds, and based on meristic and morphometric similarities to Atlantic Coast fish, that Rainwater Killifish had been introduced from the East Coast with Eastern Oysters (Hubbs and Miller 1965). However, plantings of Redear Sunfish (Lepomis microlophus) from the Dexter hatchery were made in the San Joaquin valley in the 1950s (Shapalov et al. 1959, cited by Cohen and Carlton 1995). Since the Dexter hatchery was a major source for warm water gamefish in the West, and the discoveries were so simultaneous, a single source seems likely. The merisitic similarities of the West Coast populations to Atlantic populations are small and could be explained by adaptation to an estuarine habitat (Cohen and Carlton 1995).

In May 1958, Rainwater Killifish were discovered in Berkeley Aquatic Park on San Francisco Bay. It was subsequently discovered in several locations, mostly sloughs and lagoons on the Central Bay (Richmond), Oakland (Merrit Slough), Corte Madera Creek), the South Bay (Palo Alto), and San Pablo Bay (Sonoma Creek) (Hubbs and Miller 1965). By the 1970s, it was abundant in Suisun Marsh (Matern et al. 2002). It has been found in the lower reaches of 25 San Francisco Bay tributaries (Leidy 2007), and in salt ponds adjacent to South San Francisco Bay at salinities up to 50 PSU (Mejia et al. 2008). In 1963, this fish was found in Lake Irvine, a reservoir in the interior of Orange County (Hubbs and Miller 1965). Again, this population is believed to be established, though we are unaware of recent records (Swift et al. 1993). An established population was found at Goleta Point, on the University of California Campus in Santa Barbara in the early 1980s (Swift et al. 1993). In July 1958, another population of L. parva was found in several sloughs near Yaquina Bay, Oregon (1958, Hubbs and Miller 1965). We assume that this fish is still established there, but we have found no recent records.

Invasion History Elsewhere in the World:

In 1959 Rainwater Killifish (L. parva) were found in Timpie Spring, on the shore of Great Salt Lake, Utah. Since then, this fish has been found elsewhere in the Great Salt Lake Basin basin, in Blue Lake (Hubbs and Miller 1965) and in Utah Lake (Lee et al. 1980).

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Description

The Rainwater Killifish (Lucania parva) is a small, mostly estuarine fish, but it has some breeding freshwater populations and does enter marine waters (Hildebrand and Schroeder 1928; Page and Burr 1991; Fuller and Noa 2008). Killifish of the family Fundulidae have a somewhat streamlined body, with soft-rayed dorsal and anal fins, a rounded or squareish tail, abdominal pelvic fins, and moderate-sized scales, and a small, upturned mouth. The origin of the dorsal fin is anterior to that of the anal fin. This fish has 20 to 23 lateral line scales, and 9-13 dorsal rays. The body is laterally compressed, and deep, compared to the Bluefin Killifish (L. goodei.) The Rainwater Killifish is small, up to 70 mm long, but more usually ~32 mm. The back of the fish is dusky to olive brown, and the sides are silvery-white, white, with a faint dusky-orange stripe from the edge of the gill-cover to the base of the tail. The scales are large, with dark borders. Males tend to be smaller than females, and have a black spot at the anterior edge of the dorsal fin. During the breeding season, males have orange edges to the pelvic and anal fins (Hardy 1978; Robins et al. 1986; Page and Burr 1991; Murdy et al. 1997; Moyle 2002; Froese and Pauly 2018).

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Taxonomy

Ecology

General:

Over most of its range, Rainwater Killifish (Lucania parva) is an estuarine species, ranging from euhaline to tidal fresh waters, but nontidal freshwater populations occur far up the Rio Grande and Pecos Rivers in Texas, New Mexico, and Mexico, and on the Florida peninsula, where the 'fresh' waters are slightly saline or highly mineralized (Page and Burr 1991). Males tend to be somewhat more colorful than females and smaller (Hardy 1979; Robins et al. 1986; Page and Burr 1991; Murdy et al. 1997; Froese and Pauly 2018). Fish mature at about 25 mm. Females can carry 7-104 eggs. The spawning time in Chesapeake Bay is April-July, but in Florida they spawn year-round (Hildebrand and Schroeder 1938; Hardy 1978). Males guard territories, but do not make nests. The eggs are demersal and adhesive and are scattered on vegetation. The larvae are initially demersal, but then swim in small schools, often moving into very shallow-water. They can mature in 3-5 months after hatching (Wang 1986).

At the northern end of its range, in southern New England, Rainwater Killifish inhabit estuaries which freeze over in winter, but in Florida and Mexico they range into subtropical waters (Robins et al. 1986; Page and Burr 1991). They are remarkably euryhaline, occurring and breeding at 0-49 PSU (Hardy 1978). Inland freshwater populations occur mostly in alkaline waters with high mineral content, such as the St. Johns River, Florida, and the Rio Grande Basin in Texas, Mexico, and New Mexico (Page and Burr 1991). These fish are sensitive to acidic conditions (Dunson and Travis 1991). The Rainwater Killifish are strongly associated with dense vegetation including Tapegrass (Vallisneria americana), Pondweed (Potamogeton spp.), and Eelgrass (Zostera marina). Rainwater Killifish feeds mostly on small invertebrates (Hildebrand and Schroeder 1928). In experiments they strongly preferred vegetated areas, and preferred them even more in the presence of predators (Largemouth Bass) (Jordan 2002).

Food:

annelids, mollusks, amphipods

Trophic Status:

Omnivore

Omni

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Habitats

General Habitat	Fresh (nontidal) Marsh	None
General Habitat	Grass Bed	None
General Habitat	Swamp	None
General Habitat	Nontidal Freshwater	None
General Habitat	Tidal Fresh Marsh	None
General Habitat	Unstructured Bottom	None
General Habitat	Oyster Reef	None
General Habitat	Canals	None
General Habitat	Mangroves	None
Salinity Range	Limnetic	0-0.5 PSU
Salinity Range	Oligohaline	0.5-5 PSU
Salinity Range	Mesohaline	5-18 PSU
Salinity Range	Polyhaline	18-30 PSU
Salinity Range	Euhaline	30-40 PSU
Salinity Range	Hyperhaline	40+ PSU
Vertical Habitat	Nektonic	None

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Tolerances and Life History Parameters

Minimum Temperature (ºC)	1	Based on geographic range, occurrence in estuaries with ice cover.
Maximum Temperature (ºC)	28	Keup and Bayless 1964, Neuse River NC.
Minimum Salinity (‰)	0	Page and Burr (1991, permanent nontidal freshwater populations in more saline 'fresh' waters, eg. St. Johns River, Florida, Rio Grande, Texas-New Mexico)
Maximum Salinity (‰)	48	Field (Hardy 1978), found in South San Francisco Bay Salt ponds with mean salinities of ~ 50 PSU (Mejia et al. 2008)
Minimum Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l)	2	Nordlie 2006, Field
Minimum Reproductive Salinity	0	Rainwater Killifish can reproduce in tidal fresh water, and in regions with alkaline, mineralized freshwaters (Page and Burr 1991).
Maximum Reproductive Salinity	30	Highest tested (Fuller 2008)
Minimum Length (mm)	25	Size at maturity (Hardy 1978)
Maximum Length (mm)	70	Page and Burr 1991, but more usually to 37 mm (Froese and Pauly 2018).
Broad Temperature Range	None	Cold Temperate-Subtropical
Broad Salinity Range	None	Nontidal Limnetic-Hyperhaline

General Impacts

Extirpation of the endangered Tidewater Gobies (Eucyclogobius newberryi) in the San Francisco estuary followed the invasion of Rainwater Killifish (Lucania parva) (Hubbs & Miller 1965; Leidy 1984). In experiments, the presence of Rainwater Killifish in aquaria did not affect the growth rate or cortisol levels of Tidewater Gobies (Chase and Todgham 2016). Adverse effects of Rainwater Killifish do not appear to result from food competition or stress, but may be due to displacement by faster reproduction and greater environmental tolerance (Chase et al. 2016).

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Regional Impacts

NEP-V	Northern California to Mid Channel Islands		Ecological Impact	Predation
Several extirpations of tidewater gobies in the San Francisco Bay area followed the invasion of rainwater killifish (Lucania parva) Hubbs & Miller 1965; Leidy 1984) and yellowfin goby (Acanthogobius flavimanus); Brittan et al. 1970).' (Lafferty et al. 1999)
NEP-V	Northern California to Mid Channel Islands		Ecological Impact	Competition
cboIMP_Impact txtIMP_Type IMP_Comments Predation Ecological Impact Several extirpations of tidewater gobies in the San Francisco Bay area followed the invasion of rainwater killifish (Lucania parva) Hubbs & Miller 1965; Leidy 1984) and yellowfin goby (Acanthogobius flavimanus); Brittan et al. 1970).' (Lafferty et al. 1999)
P090	San Francisco Bay		Ecological Impact	Competition
Adverse effects of Rainwater Killifish on the Tidewater Goby do not appear to result from food competition or stress, but may be due to displacement by faster reproduction and greater environmental tolerance (Chase et al. 2016).
P090	San Francisco Bay		Ecological Impact	Predation
Several extirpations of tidewater gobies in the San Francisco Bay area followed the invasion of rainwater killifish (Lucania parva) Hubbs & Miller 1965; Leidy 1984) and yellowfin goby (Acanthogobius flavimanus); Brittan et al. 1970).' (Lafferty et al. 1999).
CA	California		Ecological Impact	Competition
cboIMP_Impact txtIMP_Type IMP_Comments Predation Ecological Impact Several extirpations of tidewater gobies in the San Francisco Bay area followed the invasion of rainwater killifish (Lucania parva) Hubbs & Miller 1965; Leidy 1984) and yellowfin goby (Acanthogobius flavimanus); Brittan et al. 1970).' (Lafferty et al. 1999), Adverse effects of Rainwater Killifish on the Tidewater Goby do not appear to result from food competition or stress, but may be due to displacement by faster reproduction and greater environmental tolerance (Chase et al. 2016).
CA	California		Ecological Impact	Predation
Several extirpations of tidewater gobies in the San Francisco Bay area followed the invasion of rainwater killifish (Lucania parva) Hubbs & Miller 1965; Leidy 1984) and yellowfin goby (Acanthogobius flavimanus); Brittan et al. 1970).' (Lafferty et al. 1999), Several extirpations of tidewater gobies in the San Francisco Bay area followed the invasion of rainwater killifish (Lucania parva) Hubbs & Miller 1965; Leidy 1984) and yellowfin goby (Acanthogobius flavimanus); Brittan et al. 1970).' (Lafferty et al. 1999).

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